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. -la
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^W;^^'^
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026451009
GMMMATOGRAPHY
MANUAL OF REFERENCE
ALPHABETS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN
LANGUAGES
BASED ON THE GERMAN COMPILATION
F. BALLHOEN.
LONDON
TRUBNBR AND CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1861.
k.'L^^^%
PREFACE.
The Geammatogeapht is offered to the Public as a compendiojis introduction to
the reading of the most important ancient and modem languages. Simple in
its design, it will be conBulted with advantage by the Philological Student, the
Amateur Linguist, the Bookseller, the Corrector of the Press, and the diligent
Compositor.
Although substantially based on " BalUiorn's Alphabete," a German com-
pilation, which, in the space of a few years, passed through nine editions, the
present manual has in several articles been very considerably improved and
enlarged. Of the new observations which have been inserted, some may prove
useful even when this work shall be consulted by the side of the respective
Grammars. With regard to the Asiatic Alphabets, it may be stated, that the
-continued efforts to obtain trustworthy specimens have, in some instances, led
to highly satisfactory results. In preparing the type of the Chinese characters,
the lateral "Tones" have been adjoined to the 214 symbols of pronunciation.
These additions will enable the student, instructed by native teachers, to re-
member with greater facility the varying articulation of vowel-sounds.
The publishers entertaiu the hope, that the present work, an humble attempt
to assist in the furtherance of philological pursuits, will obtain the eiftsouraging
consideration of competent scholars, whose suggestions, avaiMile for future
editions, are respectfully solicited.
M.PHABETia!i.L INDEX.
^han (or Pnshto)
Amhiaric . . . .
Anglo-Saxon
Arabic . ' .
Arabic Ligatures
Araraaeio . . ^
Archaic Characters » .
Armeniau
Assyrian Cuneiform
Bengali .
Bohemian (Czechian) .
Biigis
Burmese •
Canaresef(or Camitaca) ,
Chinese
Coptic .
Croato-Glagolitio ,
pufio . . . .
Cyrillic (or Old SlaTonio)
Czechian (or Bohemian)
Danish
Demotic
23.
30,31
Ethiopio
Etruscan
Georgian
German
GlagoKtic
Gothic
Greek . ,
Greek Ligatures j^ .
Greek (^chaio)**l»
Gujerati (or Guzerattee)
Hieratic .
Hieroglyphics
Hebrew
Hebrew (Archaic)
Hebrew (Eabbinical)
23,
10
28
24,25
73
20,21
21,22
. 9
8,9
. 58
7
. 45
67,68
. 45
41
. 42
32,33
. 29
60
. 9
58
67,68
71
. 8
9
24,25
9
54
70
59
74
55
56
9
48
8
8
11,12
8
. 18
Hebrew (Judaeo-German),
Hebrew (Current hand) .
nganan .
^rian .
Irish .
Italian (Old-) ,
Javanese
Lettish . . . .
Mantshii
Median Cuneiform
Modem Greek (or Komaic)
Mongolian . . . .
Ifumidian
Old-Slavonie (or Cyrillic) .
Palmyrenian .
Persian . . .
Persian Cuneiform .
Phoenician .
Polish .
Pushto (or Afghan)
Ecmaio (or Modem Greek)
Kussian , .
Htmes ....
Samaritan . . . ,
Sanscrit
Servian . . . .
Slavonic (Old-) _ .
Serbian (or Wendish)
Swedish
46.
Page
13
. 14
68
. 63
78
. 9
34
47,48
69
50, 51
6
57
52
8
58
9
27
5
8
65
28
57
61,62
75,76
15
35-36, 37, 38
. * . 63
Syriao
Tamil .
Telugu
Tibetan .
Turkish
Wallachian
WendishTPw Serbian)
Zend . . '.
. 58
66
.72
ie, 17, 18, 19
. 39, 40
44
26
64
66
41
^.#
PERSIAN CUNElf OEM CHAMCTEES.
*■
There are two main families of Cuneiform Characters which, before the expedition . of
Alexander the Great, were in use nearly in all Asiatic Countries, subjected to the (Ac'hse-
menides) Persian Kings. One of these, the Arian arrow-headed, is here given, aiwt is
a pure alphabet of fixed characters, which was made use of by the old Persians, proper,
and is now read with tolerable accuracy. [.The other, however, not yet deciphered with
sufficient certainty, was employed, withfsome modifications, by at least five different nations,
the Babylonians, the Assyrians , the Medo-Scythians (the second in the triglot inscriptions
of Persepolis and Bisutun), the Susians and the Armenians. Almost in each of these five
sorts of characters can be distinguished three styles, the Archaic, theLlJidary, and the Cursive.
Form
Value
Form
Value
Form
Value
Form
Value
^
, a
tW
t
T<t
m before 1
^
s (sh)
??
i
mt
t before i
E<-
m before u
T^-T
•
Z
<?f
u
nh
t before u
t<
11
"K
2', g'
Tt
k
KT
th
K-
*
J
<S:<
h
<T
q
^
d
£T
r
^
thr (tr)
«TT
kh
<ET
dh
-«
r'
H
rp, q
<TT-
g
^
P
fi
f
^^
d, h
<e
gh
K<
f
►TE
V
<«
b,u,m,i
W-
k'
tT
b
*TE
e(s)
A
point for
separating
, words.
►<E
g'
-W
m
'H*
MEDIAN CUNEIFORM CHAEACTERS
Form
Value
Form
Value
Form
Value
Form
Value
-T
a
tT
t
tM
phi
2<T^
VO
►ETE
a
2-TT
ta
^,\*
"'♦
TS
S
Ec
i
►Tt
ti
-TK
yu
►^
sa
EEt
i
-<
tu
j^m
yo
ST
su
<
u
STt
th
-STT-
r
KTT
s'
Wt
u
TS
thi
-frr
ra
V
s'a
cE
q
►ST
thu
-m<
ri
<T-
s'i
tJS
qii
ttT
P
^»?r
ru
T-
z
*-.►>-
k
:-T
pa
'Te
ro
W
za
"tT
ka
t^
pi
►tT
lu
A
h
m5=
ku
tT^
pe
<^
fi
tc
ha
►TE
kh
Tt
pu
t
fe
►tT
n
<TO
kha
t;
Ph
T2T
V
<►
ni
>►<
khu
►T
pha
!^??
vu
tTTt
ra
1
1
•
II
A8SYRIA1S CUISEIFOEM CHARACTERS
Form
Value
Poim
Value
Form
Value
Form
Value
£-4
1-
A
. ch
>T
[ "
it!
)
a, ya
t
[ ^
)
1;?
L
^1
H
IT
. r rsh
C:
S^
, t, s
£T
j
<T-*<T
)
<*^
g- kh
SET
ET
f ds, z,
[ dshorj
' s
EKT
)
J^TT
£T
)
4&$
L •
t<T
. d
4
1. ■
>*
>T-
\
Em
1
T-
> 1
i^T
vT^
^
h
S
i, y
■ty
I k
T^
1
fflf
hu,.v, y
2TT
i, ii
t;;
y sh
If
1
^T*
y
tT
5r<T
+<T
DT
j
IIT
a.^
1
:<n
]
HT
( kh
s:TyT
5&^
AT
o
ET
1
W
>
/
ii
Y, h, a, r
£T
m, V
^T
[r
«=f^
a, z
M<
1
►:t
j
ItT
►J^
nue
} ch
i
->
[ n
5
/
[ vush
OLDEST CHARACTERS
Jlrfangement
Hieroglyphics
Hieratic
Demotic
Phosnician
Mumidian
Early -Hebrew
S Aleph
f
t
f -v
f
n Beth
■w
D
XJ-
^ 9
i*^
J Gimel
t
l^
. . .
T 1
T Daleth
1
-TT
^ s-
1
^ ^
n He
CI
u\
?
^
^
^
1 Vav
f
^
7 7
^
] Zayin
!
-\
7.
■4^
^
....
a
A.
A
....
n Cheth
o
ft
^ ^
')))'
B
Q Teth
^
■ ■ •
J
^
u
- Yodh
1-^
^
2^
^ r77
. . .
^X
3 Kaph
^->
^t— .
«-k
^^^
oy
iJ
^ Lamedh
/^
A
)
L /^
/
L
Mem
iH
^
^ ij-l
^1
:y
3 Nun
y
^
■ ■ ■
"1 1
1
iJ
D Sam6k
L
ii
X.
^ ^
^
y Aym
®
'o
1.
U
o O
S Pe
?
;
>
n
)
1
liJ Tsaclhe
M
■■i»
r r
. . .
VM/
rJ Q'oph
f
k
\'
'v V
17
"??
n Resh
A
R
Cx
^ ^
1
s^
t2? Shin
■ ■■
^H
Ct^
itJ yfj yf.
W VA^
n Tav
¥
. . .
. . .
h -^
xt
xt
«1
/
J
5
■ •
$
'
. 9
OLDEST CHARACTERS
Aramaic
Estrangelo
Palmyrenian
Mc
Old -Hellenic
Old -Italic
Elrarian
H *(:
ni
dlR^
I
A
4 ^ A
Af\\
^
:n
3
J
% I
n
A
A
A
^
rri ^\
( 7 )
?1.S )
u
^
"I
h
A 7 j:^
A 9 ^
^ B b
1\
I
a
V
•
-A
I
A d
J
/
H
E|
3^E
^3 e
8 f
n
^
M •
6
B H
a-H
H h
\)
1
6
L
o
. O 9
1 t
>v ^
r
> D
J
? 3
yi
J±S\
1
^•t
3 3
1.
>l k
>i.k
A J )
U L
X
b
J
1 m
J /:
m m)
1
C5
■o
J
M /V'
t I
7 A/
f
-n r n
1 1 )
u
A
y
£
C)
ecD j
1
r
o
9 <>
n r.
C] A
GOO
o ♦)
^ 3 ^ P,b
< V 1
1 •*
n
^ s ^
J
^ ^
Af
q a D r
V
X
V .
J^
AA M
M
2 5? s
/-A
V
^
J
^ T
V Y
-v t
V
Y u
V V, u
10
HEBREW
Form
2
:
n
)
k
t
n
]D, final *!
h
D, final D
J, final I
D
V
£, final tl
^, final ]>
P
n
Kame
Aleph
Beth
Gimel
Daleth
He
Vav
Zayiii
Cheth
Teth
Yodh
Kaph
Lamedh
Mem
Nun
Samek
Ayin
Pe
Tsadhe
Q'oph
Resh
Sin
Shin
Tav
Pronun-
ciation
Spiritus lenis
b bh
g gli ,
d dh
h
w
S sbft
cli
t
j
k kh
1.
ni
n
s
guttural
P Ph
ss
q
r
s
sh
t th
Numer.
value
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
Final- Kaph
with Shva Tf with Q'amets ?[
with Daghesh and Q'amets ^
LIGATURES.
4 = /K) also instead of a-^n'-js
or 2 =
NOTES.
The Hebrew Alphabet, like all Semitic al-
phabets, consists only of consonants, 22 in
number, some of which, however, hare also
the force of vowels. Hebrew is read from right
to left. Because at the end of the lines , words
cannot be divided , the following dilatable cha-
racters (dilatabiles) were employed to help to
justify, or fill up the lines; but now the prac-
tice is all but obsolete.
tzD m S r-i !-i &<
CONSONANTS.
Notes on Pronunciation,
)j^ is the softest guttural, an emission of the
breath scarcely to be heard, the Spiritus
lenis of the Greeks, similar to -, but much
softer.
PI befora a vowel, is our aspirated h (the Spi-
ritus asper of the Greeks); but after a
vowel, at the end of a syllable, it is »
guttural, and, at the end of words, it
often supplies the place of a vowel.
y 1) is a guttural g, accompanied by a gra-
ting or rattling sound ; 2) a softer breathing
like N. In reading and transcribing hebrew
words, it is now usual to omit ; and s,
e. g. ■'iss; Eli.
n is the harshest guttural , like the German
ch as pronounced by the Swiss, or the
Spanish x and j.
^ is pronounced in Hebrew more like a ratt-
ling guttural, than as a pure lingual, and
partakes of both sounds.
t?? and t^ were originally but one and the
same letter, as they still are when written
without points ; but as in some words this
letter had a softer sound, similar to s,
this two-fold pronunciation is distinguished
by the grammarians by the diacritical point :
* (sh) and a (s).
* is the English z.
£2, p and j{ are strongly articulated sounds,
produced by a, compression of the lower
orgafls of the mouth; the two first, therefore,
differ essentially from n and s which are
equivalent to our t and k, and are often
aspirated.
11
The six consonants PESTja have a two-
fold pronunciation: 1) aharder and more slen-
der sound (tenuis), like our b g d k p t, and
2) a smoother sound accompanied by a soft
aspiration. The harder sound is the primeval ;
it occurs at the beginning of words and syl-
lables without a vowel preceding immediately,
and is indicated by a point (Daghesh tene) in
those six consonants. They are aspirated after
a vowel immediately preceding; in manu-
scripts this is indicated by the Raphe ( " ), but
in printed books the aspiration is shown by
the absence of the Daghesh.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONSONANTS.
a) According to the organs of speech by which
they are pronounced •■
1) gutturals (gutturales) n * n s
2) palatals (palatinae) p S j ■<
3) Unguals llinguales) ts P i and ) h
4) dentals (dentales) svi i
5) labials (labiates) q n n i
The 1 partakes of the 1. and 3. classes.
b) According to their sound:
1) aspirated consonants (aspirantes): -yrts
2) soft consonants (molles) : liquids -i : a i,
semivowels i "
3) sibilants (sibilantes): s "a D t
4) mutes (mutae) : r s 3 t J a and p c
VOWELS.
That the scale of the five vowels a S i o oo
is derived from the three primitive vowels a
t 00, is to be seen much more distinctly in the
Hebrew and the other Semitic languages than
in other languages. The S has been formed
by a -f- i, the o by a + oo, and, properly speak-
ing, both are contracted diphthongs : e =; ai,
S z=: au. — The full vowels formed by this
process are the following, arranged according
to the three principal vowels and to their pro-
sodical quantity:
Vowel a (X)
-J- Q'amets, S a
-^ Patach, a.
Vowel e — i C )
^-r;- Tsere (with Yodh), e
"f—r- Chireq (magnum), i
-;:- Tsere (without Yodh), e (e)
-:r~ Seghol, 6, e (the latter is also
written ^~^)
—r- Chireq (parvum), it (i).
Vowel — 00 ( T )
•j Cholera (magnum), 6
1 Shureq, fi
_^ C'holem (parvum), 5 (6)
-r- Q'amets -chatuph, 6
-r— Q'ibbuts, 66 (65)-
The vowels, or vowel-points, are placed
under the consonants after which they are
pronounced (i ra); but the Patach, placed
under a guttural at the end of a word , is pro-
nounced before this guttural, ~ni ruaoh, in
which case it is named Patach furtleum. The
Cholem (without Vav) is placed above the
consonant on the leftside: Hro. The figui-e i
is to be pronounced sometimes ov, the i being
consonant , and the — preceding it ; sometimes
vo, the Cholem being read after the Vav. It
is more accurate to distinguish thus : i' ou, i
vo,^ 6\ likewise also 1 (Shm-eq) and ■! (Vav
with Daghesh). As, however, 5 (Shureq) is
readily discernible, because a vowel neither
can precede nor follow it, only this form is
made use of.
In opposition to the vowels
-j— Shva (Sh^va) indicates the absence of a
full and distinct vowel. Therefore
1 ) placed under a consonant concluding a
syllable , it indicates the complete absence
of a vowel and serves to divide the pre-
ceding syllable from the following (Sh^va
quiescens). It is not made use of, how-
ever, when the consonant concluding the
syllable at the same time concludes the
word, except in the case of the Final
Qoph ('^), and those words ending in two
consonants, when each of them is to be
furnished with a Sh^va, c. g. 'I'l;
2 ) itrepresents a slight and indistinct vowel,
as it were only the onset or beginning
of a vowel (^ShHa mobile).
The Sh^va mobile is pronounced somewhat
more clear and distinct in the so called Cha-
teph-vowels (S|Bn rapidum), joining a short
vowel to the Sh'^va simplex ; in opposition to
which it is also named Sh^va compositum. There
are three Chatephs :
-^ Chateph Patach , half a
-^ Chateph -Seghol , half 6
■^r- Chateph- Qamets , half o.
READING -SIGNS.
There are some reading - signs which have
close connexion with the vowels and probably
were introduced at the same time. Amongst
these is to be noticed the diacritical point of
ii and v. Meeting together with the Cholem
{—), only one point is made use of which re-
presents both; therefore iuis to be pronoimced
so , if no other vowel - point is added ; and o$h,
when the preceding consonant is unpointed,
e. g, sji sone , -ra mosheh.
More frequently we see a point placed in
the consonant to indicate in general a harder
pronunciation. There are three cases to be
distinguished, viz.:
2*
12
Dagheah forte , doubling the consonants.
Daghesh lene, hardening the consonant; it
stands only in the six mutae: n B S "i 3 a in
the above named oases ; otherwise the point
occurring in these consonants must be a Da-
ghesh forte.
Mappiq, indicates that those consonants,
■which are also us^d as vowels , are then to
be pronounced as consonants; in modern
printing it is made use of only in the B at
the end of the words.
In opposition to the point hardening the
consonant, a little stroke standing above the
consonant indicates his softer sound. This
stroke called
Raphe (") is now almost out of use, and is
only employed in order to indicate express-
ly the absence of a Daghesh or Mappiq.
ACCENTS.
The general design of the accents is to indi-
cate the rhythmical members of the verses in
the Old Testament. In doing this , they per-
form a twofold duty; for the accents mark at
one and the same time partly the logical re-
lation of each word to the whole sentence,
and partly the accented syllable of each single
word. In the first case the accents supply the
punctuation, in the latter they are signs of
tone. — As signs of tone, the different accents
are equivalent, '.because there is in Hebrew
only one kind of accentuation. In most words,
the last syllable is accented, more rarely the
last but one. — As signs of punctuation, their
use is more complicated, because they not
only separate words , like our points , commas
and colons, but also join one to the other.
Therefore they are divided in Distinctivi and
Conjunctivi. In the following list they are ar-
ranged not according to their grammatical
value, but according to their being placed
below the consonants or above them, in order
to give a more facile view of them.
ACCENTS PLACED UNDER CONSONANTS.
I Silluq only at the end of the verse , there-
fore always joined with : Soph-pasuq,
which stands between the single verses.
^ Athnach, mostly in the midst of a verse
^ Yethibh ( always to the left of the vowel).
., Tebhir
^ Tiphcha initiale
J Merkha
Double-Merkha
^ Munach
, Mahpakh (to the right of the vowel)
J Darga
Yarach
, Tiphcha finale.
ACCENTS PLACED ABOVE CONSONANTS.
.'. Segholta
'■ Zaqeph-qaton
" Zaqeph-gadhol
' Bebhia
~ Zarqa
^ Qadma
^ Pashta
i Shalshelet
'' Paser
'*'' Qarne-phara
!• Great-Telisha
■^ Little-Telisha
' Garesh
" Double- Garesh.
ACCENTS CONSISTING OF TWO PARTS BELONG-
ING TOGETHER, THE ONE ABOVE, AND THE
OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS.
— — Merkha mahpakhatum
Merkha sarqatum
Mahpakh sarqatum.
: Soph-pasuq, separating verses,
I Pesiq, between the words.
- Maqqeph, hyphen, aloft, between the words.
I Metheg, sign of tone (to the left of the
vowel).
ifUMERALS.
There are no numerical ciphers in Hebrew ;
but consonants are used instead of them. The
units are expressed by s — is, the tens by '' — s,
100—400 by p— r. The numbers 500— 900
sometimes are expressed by the five final letters
■[500 D 600 poo P| 800 1^900,
sometimes by r = 400 with addition of the
other hundreds , e.g. prr=500. In compound
numbers , the greater is placed first, e. g. s'
11, SDp 121. The number' 15 is written with
Its (9+6), instead of ni, because the name
of God nw begins with these letters ; and for
the same reason, 16 is written tp instead of T.
The thousands are expressed by the units,
superscribing two points, e. g. s 1000.
ABBREVIATIONS.
' A stroke aloft to the left of the consonant,
c. g. 's, denotes that this consonant serves
as a numeral. By the side of the last con-
sonant of a word, e. g. 'oa (^micn) it
marks an abbreviation.
" Two strokes above a word, e. g. rr's, indi-
cate that each of these letters stands for a
separate word abbreviated.
" or * in copies of the Hebrew Bible refer to
the readings placed in the margin or at the
foot of the page. The first is of Masoretic,
and the other is of modern origin.
13
RABBINIC
|GEIIMAN-BABBINIC
Form
14'ame
Pronunciation
1 ronn
Pronunciation
h
Aleph
Spiritus lenis
r)
a
3
J
7
Beth
Gimel
Daleth
bh b
gh g
dh d
2
3
b
V f
g
d
He
h
n
•h
1
r
Vav
Zayin
s
1
ri
V U
w
s
n
1
Cheth
Teth
Yodh
Ch guttural
t
y
n
y
D, final 1
cch
t
i j e short
c
2, final-]
n, final
Kaph
Lamedh
Mem
ch k
1
m
?
M , final p
3, final 1
ch
1 ' .
m
n
3, final 1
Nun
n
D
s ss
D
D, final C]
j, final]'
Samek
Ayin
Pe
Tsadhe
Q'oph
s
guttural
ph P
z
k
i)
D , final ^
D
3 , final ['
P
1
e long
p
ph pf V
z tz
k ck q
r
s sh
T
Kesh
r
n
t
n
Shin Sin
Tav
sh s
n tt
th t j
1 '
DIPHTHONGS.
ir> au, <>•> ei, M| eu, ^lotigerman.
14
HEBREW RUNNING-HAND
Form
Name
]
'ronun-
Numerical
value
Ligatures
PollBh
Oernian
\j*a(.iuu
,/
A
Aleph
K a
1
p>
S
Beth
2 b
2
-€P = j;2 be
a
/
Gimel
Daleth
T d
3
4
g* = nn bh
a
^
He
n h
5
^ = J3 ng
1
1
Vav
1 w
6
Qt = •\l nd
^
n
2
Zayin
Cheth
r s
n ch
7
,8
O = rU nh
G
Teth
£3 t
9
# = SJ nf
1
1
Yodh
Kaph
^ y
3 cch
10
20
-M = J3 nn
, V
' °r(^
Lamedh
*? 1
30
>J = i: nw
%
>
Mem
tt m
40
J = ^j nj
o
O
Nun
Samek
J n
D ss
50
60
, G^ = lii zd
y<"8
^"8
Ayin
V e
70
7 = IS ZW
®
®
Pe
Fe
2 p
S f
80
90
'D = ^s zj
•■ 1 with mark of ab-
breviation, in use at the
end of certain words.
3
3
Tsadhe
Q'oph
it Cor Z
P k
100
200
T
■o
Resh
1 r
300
[
c
Shin
^ sh
400
J^
s\
Tav
n th
500
1
vn
fAL LETTERS.
Polish.
G ermai
1.
? =
= 1 cch
? =
1 cch
9 =
= D m
9 =
D in
( =
= I n
( =
I "
1 =
= ^ f
9c§^ =
n f
f
= f^ c z
^ c =
V cz
1
15
SAMARITAN
Form
Name
Pronun-
ciation
Numerical
value
A
Aleph
Spiritas lenis
1
3
Beth
. b bh
2
TC
Gimel
g gli
3
T
Daleth
d dh
4
^
He
h Spir. asper
5
t
Vav
W V
6
^
Zayin
s ds
7
n
Cheth
ch hh
8
V
Teth
t
9
m
Yodh
y
10
iS
Kaph
k ch
20
i
Laniedh
1
30
^
Mem
m
40
;i
Nun
n
50
^
Samek
s
60
V
Ayin
J7 hebrew
70
3
Pe
p ph
80
ffl
Tsadhe
ts •
90
?
Q'oph
k
100
^
Resh
r
200
AX*
Shin
sh
300
A
Tav
t th
400
NOTES.
The Samaritan is a Semitic language. Tlteiefore,
the alphabet consists only of consonants (22 in number)
and is read from right to left. As in tliis language
words cannot be separated at the end of the lines,
the two letters ending the last word are separated
from the others and placed at the end of the line :
hut in printing this is generally avoided by dimin-
ishing or enlarging the spaces between the single
words.
Save some points and scanty orthographical
signs, there are in Samaritan no vowel- marks,
accents or other diacritical signs as in Hebrew,
Therefore we are somewhat in the dark about the
pronunciation of the consonants and vowels and it
can be acquired only by comparison with the Syriac
and the Hebrew.
VOWELS.
There are no vowel -marks as in other Semitic
languages. However, to supply this want and to
indicate somewhat the pronunciation, some conso-
nants are used as vowels , viz. .
a A, g, V
e A, <n
O, 00 '^
Of two consonants beginning a word, the first
is pronounced as if it were a slight and Indistinct
vowel, similar to the Hebrew Shwa.
DIACEITICAL SIGNS.
The only diacritical sign is a stroke over the
consonant (e, g, ^) serving to distinguish two
different words written in the same manner , or two
different forms derived from one and the same root,
or to indicate some letter added or omitted. When
placed over /J] <"' 1^- "'^ s'l'oke indicates that
these letters are real consonants, not representing
vowels.
PUNCTUATION.
A point is put by the side of the final letter of a word. Resides Ihis. ilu' followinif signs have been
introduced by the transcribers :
J or * or ♦* at the end of a sentence,
• • (also •) at the end of part of a sentence, like our colon,
= «• or — <Ct more seldom — ♦; etc., or compound — <^J =«* elc al the end of a longer sentence
or section ,
<^.*. '**~r^ "■■ similar signs, sometimes again and again repeated, between the end of one section,
paragraph or chapter, and the beginning of the other.
The numbers are written as in Hebrew (see under).
16
SYRIAC
Name
Olaph
Beth
Gomal
Dolath
He
Vau
Zain
Cheth
Teth
Yud
Koph
Lomad
Mim
Nun
Semcath
Ee
Pe
Tsode
Quph
Kish
Shin
Tau
connect-
ed with
a preced-
ing letter
connect-
ccl with
both
connect-
ed with
a follow-
Enp letter
Pronun-
ciation
^s ^Cl.
5
01
o
1
5*
V
r
ai
a
>
a.
A
la
1
•\
s
J
3
Spiritas leni
b or V
g
d
h
W or V
Z
ch
t
y
ch
1
m
wj as in
y faebrew
P or f
tS or Z
q
r
sh
thort
Numer.
value
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
■ 50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
VOWELS.
The Syriac is written from riglit to
left, — Tlxe vowels are expressed by
diacritical signs or some marks iu
imitation of the greek; the latter of
which are now mostly in use. In
former times both kinds were cm-
ployed promiscuously.
Figure
Name
9 fl
S-2
Syriac,
Greek.
2 a
—
7 _
~ 7
Pethocho
a
. or .
/TS
Rebotzo
e
-
a:
Chebotzo
1
^ or ^
P
Zekopho
ei ao!
a —
Etsotso
00
DIACRITICAL SIGNS.
. Ruchoch, a point below nn aspi-
rated letter to indicate that it jls
to be aspirated.
. Q.ushoi^ a little point over an
aspirated letter to indicate that
it is not to be aspirated.
•• Ribuif two points placed horizon-
tally above the word to indicate
the plural.
^ MarhetonOf a line above a letter
between two consonants to indi-
cate the absence of a vowel. Be-
sides, this line signifies 1) a num-
ber, 2) an abbreviation, 3) au
exclamation .
— Mehagyono, a line belofr a letter,
to show that though without a
vowpl it is to be pronounced as
if it had one.
— Linea occultans, a line placed be-
low a letter ^o denote that it is
to be mute or omitted in pro-
nunciation.
PUNCTUATION.
I marks a single part of the premise
of a sentence.
*• marks the end of a premise; or,
^ it is sign of interrogation.
* marks the single parts of the con-
clusion of a sentence; or, lai^r
interrogations.
<• or :: at the end of a period.
NUMERICAL VALUE.
The consonants of the alphabet sup-
ply the numbers from 1 to 4U0; in
compound numbers , the greater pre-
cedes. Within 500 — 900, the tens
from 50—90 are denoted' by a point
standing aloft. The mark y under a
unit denotes the thousands, -the ten-
thousands, /vthe product oFthe thou-
sands multiplied by the tenthousands..
In writing fraqtious, the numerator
is denoted hj a little stroke going
from left to right, placed above the
denominator.
LIGATURES
:^ :^ Olaph-Lomad. fl ^ ft ^ Lomad- Olaph,
■^
Double-Gomal ^ ^ Double-Lomad
17
SYRIAC
Cut iu the printing-office of B. G. Teubner in Leipzig conformably to original drawings by Frofessor
TuLLBERO of Upsala and Professor Berhsteim of Breslau.
Porm
Pronun-
ciation
Kame
Poim
Pronup-
ciation
^aine
■ Form
Pronun-
ciation
Kame
1 /
'^ )
3 1
a
> or
Spirit,
lenis.
Olaph
29^
30^,
31 J
gh
Gomal
57 )
58 )
59 «
'(gr.Q
Zain
4 3
5 a
6 O
7 ^
b
and
bh
32 *
33 V
34 *
35 J
d
and
dh
60 «.
61 -»
62 ^
63 t
kh
Cheth
8 ^
36 -i
64 ^
9 i
37 y
65 ^
10 =>
11 a
Beth
38 f
39 V
■ d
Dolath
66^
67 ^
t
Teth
12 i
b
40 s
68 ^
13 ■>
41 5
69 ^
14 ^
or
42 J
70^
15 =>
16 =j
17 >
bh
43 »
or
44 ' t-
45 9
dh
71 .
72 -
73 *
18 >
46 »
74 w.
i
Yud
19 ^
47 O)
75 w.
20 s^
21 y^
g
and
gh
48 o^
49 6i
76 s
77 s
22^
50 b^
. h
He
78 3
23 i^
2*^
25 V^
g
Gomal
51 Oi
52 (^
53 O)
79 a
80 7
81 -i
c
> ana
ch
Koph
26 V^
■54 ©>
82 T
27 s,^
28^5.
gh
55 O
56 Q
w vu-
Vau
83 ^
84 b ]
c
18
-
SYRIAC
Form
Pronuu
elation
Name
Form
Pronun
elation
Name
Form
Pronun
elation
Kamo
85 a
115^00
145 A
86 '>
116 3P
S
Semcath
146 A
sh
Shin
87 i
11730
•
147 A
4
"
88 ^
89 «^
118 \
119 i,
148 I
149 fc.
t
and
90 p
Koph
120 i.
ee
(hebr.
Ee
150 i
th
91 a
121 i,
y)
151 -fc.
92 •>
ch
122 NS.
152 I
93 -1
123 >5»
153 ftv
94 ^
124 3
154 i
t
Tan
95 «:f
125 2
p
and
155 -t.
]
96 \
126^
ph(f)
156 h
97 \
127^
Phe
157 ;
98. >\
1
Lomad
128 3
p
158 6.
, th"
i
99 >^
129 a
I
159 i
r *-"
,
100 ^
lo; ^
130 3
131 2
phf
160 -IS,
LI(
5ATUR]
ES.
102 2D
132 J
161 :^ I
a\
Olaph-
103 JO
133 J
Sharp
162 "Si. 1
dl
Lomad
S
Tsod6
)
104 »
m
Mim
134 j
or
SS
163 v^
105 a
135 J .
164%
106 )0
136 J3
165 v^
107 )Q
108 J
137 a
138 dO
k
Quph
166 v^
167%
gg
Double-
Goraal
109 J
139 da
168%
110 J
n
Null
140 i
169%
111 ^
141 ;
■
V
Rish
mc^^l
Gomal-
112 X
142 V
171(^1
172 ^
gv
Vau
113 y
143 ♦
Vau-
114 00
s
Semcath
144 ML
sh
Shin
173 >5i J
vu
Nun
19
SYRIAC
Form
Pronun-
ciation
Name
Vowels, Accents and Orthographi-
cal Signs
Points and Numbers
174 x:
175 X
176 H
177 y
178)^
179 )«;
180^
181^
182^
183^
184'^
185^
186 >SS.
187 \SS.
188>{&>
189 iS^
190 SS.
191 VSS.
192 '^
193 !&.
194 &>
195 -iS*.
196 •&>.
197 ^
198 Jj
199 U
200
201
202
Of:
la
lee
I It
Yud-Nun
Lomad-
Olaph
Loraad-
Teth
Double
Lomad
Lomad-
Ee
Lomad-
Tau
Mim-
Nan
Nun-
Olaph
Tsode-
Nun
Tsode-
Gomal
a Pethocho
VOWELS AND ACCENTS.
203
204
205 « ■
206 =» } e Rebotzo
207 •.
208 *
209 .-
210 ■•
211 p
212 »
213 ••
214 >
■ i Chebotzo
o Zekopho
u Etsotso
ORTHOGRAPHICAJ.
SIGNS.
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
Ribui
Mehagyono
Marhetono
Qushoi,Ruchoch
Little hooks at the
beginning of a word
at the end of a
I word
I Strokes between
> the single letters to
adjust the lines
POINTS.
224 .
229
226 _:
230
226 -:
231
227 _•.
232
228 -•.
233 < Mark of marginal
notes
234 ^ Number -Mark
NUMBERS.
■ Form
Value
/
1
>IS
2
^
3
J
4
O)
5
o
6
)
7
tA*
8
•i
9
w*
10
f=
20
^
30
)o
40
^
50
3P '
60
>\
70
^
80
J
90
JO
100
i
200
A
300
L
400
1000
3*
20
ARABIC
Form
Pronunciation
Name
Unconnected
Connected
- with a preced-
ing letter
Connected .
-with both
Connected
with a follow-
ing letter
Numericral
value
Elif
t
L
. .
N Spir. lenis
1
Ba
^
^
A
J
b
2
Ta
<i>
OA.
A
s
t
400
Tha
.^
vi*
..•.
A
5
th
500
Jim
Hha
c.-
t
t
:0.
J
hh
3
8
Cha
Dal .
■ t
^
^
ch
d
600
4
Dhal
6
cX
. . .
dh or ds
700
Ra
Zay
7 y
>
r
z
200
7
Sin
U"
0**
•Mh
JM
s
60
Shin
^■..
. A
^
sh
300
Ssad
u"
(ja
.*a
rfO
SS or (J
90
Ddad ,
u^
yd
.td
-o
d or dd
800
Tta
io
ia
k
io
tt or th
9
Zza
Jt
i^
Six
ib
zz
900
Ain
e
d
X.
s.
V Bpir. gutt.
■70
Ghain
£
d
k
£■
gh
1000
Fa
o
t-O,
A
s
f.
80
Qaf
o
(3
A
S
k
100
Kaf
J
vd
JC^s.
r^
k soft
20
Lam
J
J^
Jl
J
1
30
Mim
r
r
♦
X
m
40
Nuri
u
^
X
j
n
50
Ha
8 Final »
& Final i
«
9
h
5
Waw
Ya
^
tS
A
J
w
6
10
ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS
3 * e 2 i 1!.
21
VOWELS.
-^ Fatha, a a e ^^ Kesre, i e _jl Damma, oo o
At the end of the suhstantives the vowels are doubled to indicate the case, viz. -.
-S_ on ~' in -£_ an
This is called Nunation, because, in pronouncing, Nun is added to the vowel.
DIPHTHONGS: ' ^^^ ai \— au as i„ ge^an.
ORTHOGKAPHICAL SIGNS. ■"'■,-
" Jezma^ separating syllables, is written over the final. consonant of all shut syllable
and indicates j that the syllable is finished and the consonant to .be pronounced with
the preceding vowel ; it corresponds to the Shma quiescens of the Hebrew.
JH- Teshdid , mark of doubling. The final consonant of a syllable being the same as
th?it beginning the following one, this consonant is written only once, but marked
with the sign - , which corresponds to the Hebrew Z)a^/ies/j/orte. In African manu-
scripts it is written v or a.
^e_ Hamza is placed genferally above the Elif , when this is used as a consonant and
furnished with a vowel; when this vowel is a Kesre, the Hamza is placed beneath;
sometimes also it stands above the Y. In Kufic Korans it is supplied by a little green
stroke, in Moorish or African manuscripts by a thick green or yellow dot.
*" Wesla, joining- mark. The Elif, at the commencement of a word) is sometimes in
pronunciation absorbed by the final vowel of the preceding word. In this case, the
vowel of the Elif is elided and marked by the Wesla.
~ Medda stands above ap Elif pronounced by Fatha and followed by a Hamza; it in-
dicates the prolongation of the a. It is placed , also , above an ^\ii at the commence-
ment of a word, or instead of an omitted Elif. Besides, this sign is a mark of abbre-
'''**'°".- PUNCTUATION.
There are no signs of punctuation in Arabic , only in the Koran the verses are separated
by :^. This sign, however, or ' or < or a red dot, is employed also. in other books at the
end of a section. In manuscripts, sometimes, anew section begins with a word written
in red colour; in manuscript dictionaries a red line is placed above each catch -word.
CIPHERS.
. Formerly, the Arabs, like other oriental nations, used the letters of the alphabet to
express numbers; at a later period, however, they adopted the following 10 special figures,
cfiUed by us Europeans the Arabian ciphers, by the Arabs themselves the Indian ones,
IfrfclVAl.
1234567890
Regarding their composition and value they accord with our numerals , which are
taken from them, whereas the consonants expressing ciphers are written from right to left,
viz. Ulr (1861).
ARABIC LIGATURES
Ba-Jim
Ba-Hha
:^
Tha-Cha
Jim -Jim
Ba-Hha -Jim
^
Jim-Hha
^ dX a!
c ■
Ba-Cha
Ta-Jim
Ta-Hha
s*
Hha-Jim
Hha-Jim-Jim
Hha- Jim-Hha
Ta-Cha
Tha-Hha
e*
Hha-Hha
Hha -Hha -Jim
22
ARABIC LIGATURES
t ^
Hha-Cha
i^i.
Kaf-Cha
t^
Cha-Jim
y iL
Lam-Elif
t^
Cha-Hha
Lam -Jim
t^^^
Sin -Jim
Lam-Jim-Hha
ee^^
Sin-Hha
Lam-Hha
e^^^
Sin- Ciia
Lam-Hha-Jim
it^^
Shin -Jim
i^
Lam-Hha-Hha
Shin-Hha
i^^i
Lam-Cha
tt
Shin-Cha
i.
Lam- Cha-Jim
^^SS.SP
Ssad-Jim
Lam - Mim - Hha- Jim
^^:^^
Ssad-Hha
^
Lam - Mim - Hha - Hha
^ -^^^
Ssad-Cha
i ^
Lam-Ya
^
Ddad-Jim
^ ^ ^
Mim - Jim
^ ^
Ddad-Hha
c ^ ^
^
Mim -Hha
^^
Tta-Hha
Mim -Hha -Jim
^ af
Ain-Jim
^
Mim-Hlia-Hha
^ :^
Ain-Hha
c ^ ^
Mim-Cha
4 =^
Ghain-Jim
i^^
Nun -Jim
j5. a£
Ghain-Hha
it^^
Nun -Hha
€^*^
Fa -Jim
id^ ^
Nun-Cha
ie-^-^
Fa-Hha
4^ ^
Ha -Jim
ig.^^
Fa-Cha
^ ^
Ha -Hha
i
Fa-Ya
;^ i^
Ha-Cha
it
Qaf-Jim
^
Ha -Mim
it
Qaf-Hha
^^^ ^'
Ya-Jim
it
Qaf-Cha
:3^.
Ya- Jim -Hha
Kaf-Elif
Kaf-Jim
Ya-Hha
Ya-Hha-Hhii
e^^
Kaf-Hha
■^ ^
Ya-Cha
23
AETHIOPIAN AND AMHARIC
Form
ft sine
with a
with u
with i
with a
with e
with g
with 6
Hoi
U ha
\h hu
^ hi
XJ ha
y he
U he
ir. ho
Lawi
A la
A. lu
A, h
A la
A le
A le
A. lo
Haut
rfl ha
rff hu
/h. hi
rfi ha
fh, he
fh he
/f» ho
Mai
(J^ m
C>' mu
J^ mi
(fi ma
<;^ me
f?^ me
Cp mo
Saut
UJ sa
Uh su
Ml si
W sa
Ui se
\u se
qj so
Rees
I, ra
4. ru
Z ri
Z. ra
^ re
C re
C ™
Sat
tl sa
1^ su
jX si
i^ sa
A se
h se
Xh so
*Shat
fi sb.a
f5. shu
n, sM
Pi sha
f^ she
"Fl she
_fi sho
Kaf
c|> ka
<6 ku
^ ici
f ka
* ke
^ ke
# ko
Bet
n ha
n- hu
a .ti
q ha
a he
■n he
p bo
Tawi
'f ta
■t tu
1: ti
J- ta
t te
^ te
-f. to
*Tshawi
T tsk
^ tsk-
^ tshi
3F tsha
^ tshe
^ tshe
^ ts'ho
Harm
•} ha
■i. hu
•^ hi
'J ha
1 he
f} he
•^ ho
Nahas
J na
f, nu
i ni
5" na
i ne
^ ne
4° no
*Gnahas
T gna
^ gm
X gni
f gna
TL 3ie
1 gne
1* gno
Alf
A a
A- a
A. i
A a
A e
X e
A
Kaf
Yl ka
•ft- ku
U ki
H\ ka
U ke
51 ke
^ ko
*Chaf
Tl cha
Yt- chu
•^ chi'
Ti cha
■^ che
51 che
Y> cho
Wawi
(D wa
0). wu
^ wi
<P wa
^ we
or we
P wo
Ain
O a
C- u
^ i
CJj a
Cfc e
e
^P
Zai
H ^a
H- ™
H. ^i
H za
H. M
•H ze
F' zo
*Zshai
IT ja
■ff ju
K ji
IT ja
•K je
JT je
K jo
Yaman
P ya
P ya
R yi
J* ya
p. ye
JB ye
p- yo
Dent
J? da
^ du
A di
JR da
,e de
^ de
M do
*Jent
J? ja
JE ju
^ i'
J? ja
5S je
;?• je
S j»
Geml
7 ga
7- ga
2 si
P aa
•2 ge
1 ge
■5 30
Tait
m ta
m- tu
m. ti
rri ta
m. te
'I* te
jfn to
*Tshait
lit tsha
m. tsk
m. tshi
nt tsha
m tshe
*yf tshe
tvi tsho
Pait
A pa
A pii
A. pi
A pa
A pe
A pe
A po
Tzadai
A tsa
/t tsu
K, tsi
-H. tsa
A tse
/t tse
^ tso
Tsappa
B tsa
^ tsu
^ 'tsi
9 tsa
S tse
^ tse
^ tso
Aff
4 fa
^ fo
Z- fi
-4. fa
^ fe
4: fe
A fo
Pa
"l" pa
■K pti
T pi
X pa
T pe
T pe
T po
9 a
s.a
ft °
h
1
h
m
s
r
s
sh
k
b
t
tsh
h
n
gn
a
k
ch
w
V
z
y
d
j
g
t
tsh
P
ts
ts
f
p
DIPHTHONGS.
<fb kua 4n kui $ kua ^ kue 4*^ kue
•^ hhua "i^ hhui "J hhua ^ hhue "^ hhue
Yh" kua tl^ kui 1^ kua ^ kue YY* kue
7* gna >i gui ^ ^"^^ U 8"e > gue
NOTE.
The Aefhiopian and the Am-
haric are read from left to
right. The words are separa-
ted by : — The alphabet of both
languages is syllable j the Am-
^haric, however , has seven
'orders of letters (each order
consisting 6/ 7 forms or cha-
racters), wanting inAethiopi-
an, which, in the above table,
are marked by *.
24
AETHIOPIAN
Cut ill the printing-office of F, A. Bkockhaus in Leipzig under the direction of the German Oriental Society,
With a
With u
With i
With a
With e
With 6
With 6
W ha_
|^ hii
X hi
y
ha
% h6
V
he
w
ho
A la
A- li
A. 11
A
[h
A. 16
A
le
A-
16
A l.>a
#h- W
A. hi
A
ha
A. h6
A
he
A
h6
tm ma
OD. mil
1% mi
Of
md
«»X ni6
jp.
me
V
m6
1 t
IP sa
u»- Sll
"t si
■7
&a
"i 's6
/^
c
se
f
's6
: <: Fa
1
4. ril
<J rl
i-
ra
iS, r6
C
re
G
1-6
rt sa
ft. sCi
rt. si
ti
sa
A s6
A
se
fi
s6
j + qa
* qil.
* qi
^
q*i
* q6
*
qe
*
qo
i n ba
fl. bil
n. bi
n
ba
n. b6
•fl
be
n
b6
"f ta
-|i 111.-
-t ti
;»•
la
-t t6
1-
te
*
ta
-^ ha
-^ hil .
"i bi
:i
ha
t h6
1
he
-r
h6
> na
Y- nil
Jr ni
«?
na
i n6
->
ne
T
nd
h a
h. -^
A. 1
h
-a
h. -6
h
-e
h
-6
h ka
h- kil
h. ki
»i
ka
h. k6
h
ke
ii
k6
(D wa
fla. wii
^ wi
•p
wa
¥ w^
ID-
we
JP
wo
a
th 'li
•v.!
^
'a
t '6
A
e
/•
'6
If za
H- zil
n. zi
H
za
H. z6
•M
ze
H
z6
P ya
p yil
B. yi
?
ya
p. y6
JR
ye
P-
yo-
ft da
^ dil
J?, dl
fi
da
R. d6
«■
de
f-
d6 •
1 1 'ga
i
T- gii
^ gi
p
ga
I g6
•7
ge
^
g6
m ta
m- idi
m. ti
"I
ta '
fll. t6
T
te
m
to
A pa
A- p«i
A. pi
A
pa
A. p6
A-
pe
A
P6
X za
X. ?ii
X. ?1
x
za
R. ?6
x-
ze
A
zd
za
0. «il
I zi
?
za
* z6
6
ze
/»
z6
A fa
^ fd
d. ft
4-
fa
iC f6
9
fe
C
f6
T pa
•p pil
•C pi ■
;r
pa
T p6
T
pe
;^
p6
25
DIPHTHONGS.
}]d kua V|». kui tf« kue 5p^ kuA Ij, ku6
To gua 7«.
gui
^ qua 4»* qui 4""
•p gue
gud
„ -J . -J— , que •f qua
-Jo hua •>«. hui -^ hue :5i huA
^ gu6
^ qu6
■J. hu6
PUNCTUATION.
Stop f6r the division of words
Comma J Semicolon
Full stop
NUMBEES.
1234567 89 10 11 etc. 'JO 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 c-ti-. 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Ethiopic , formerly the vernacular language of the Abyssinians , by whom it was called
GeEz, is only preserved in writings. As a Semitic language it bears a close affinity to the
Himyaric, a South-Arabian dialect, which was superseded in the times of Mahomed. The
Ethiopic possesses a high degree of flexibility which is mainly due to the diligence with which
the study of Greek writings was cultivated in Abyssinia. The Alphabet originally consisted
of consonants without indications of vowels. In form it approaches the Himyaric and thus
differs from the other Semitic characters. Ancient Ethiopic inscriptions show examples of
writing from right to left; owing, however, to the early influence of Greek literature, espe-
cially after the introduction of Christianity, the arrangement of words was fixed from left to
right. At the same time the coalition of consonants and vowels was indicated by particular
forms, which gave rise to the adoption of a complete syllabarium. With the change of the
ruling power in the fourteenth century the Ethiopic language began to decay, and rapidly
falling into disuse, it is now replaced by the Amharic language.
AMHARIC.
This language deriving its name from the kingdom of Amhara in Abyssinia, has supplant-
ed the ancient Ethiopic idiom. The kings of Shoa, on gaining the upper handj efl'ected the
preponderance of ths Amharic language, to the exclusion of the kindred Ethiopic. The
Alphabets of both languages are identical, except the following Characters, which are peoiiliar
to the Amharic language.
wilh a
with ii
with i
with a
with e
with e
with 6
if sha
If. shil
H Shi
ri shA
K sh^
-fi she
Jt sh6
tP tsha
^ tshii
r: tshi
3J tshtl
^ tsh6
'■f tshe
^ tsh6
f fia
•j: nii
t fii
? SA
■g M
^ lie
^ 116
•fi kha
-fi- kU
% Wii
Ti kha
Ih kh6
-fl khe
Ti kho
1C ja (I'rO
IF i^
TC ji
TTJA
Tf j6
JTJe
-jr j6
K ja
% i^
K j«
n j^
Xi^
jf Je
^ ji
£0. chha
fiKfechhii
£tl. (^^hl
e^ chha
tCfc.chh6
•^ chhe
£iii»chh6.
I mua
»■ rua
^ sua
DIPHTHONGS.
^
sua
a
bua
*
tua
se
cua
X
nua
zua
yua
dua
f% tua
m^ cua
^ zua
^ fua
26
TURKISH.
TJie Turkish language is a compound of wordB taken from the Tatar, Persian and Ara1>ic languages. The high
dialect, only, spoken at Constantinople by people of quality, and serving as the written language, is
a compound of Persian and Arabic words. Like most oriental languages , Turkish is written and read
• from right to left.
I Elif supplies the german vowels a, y, o,
u, the consonants of the word being hard ;
but the german e, i, o, u, the consonants
• being soft. When Alif is followed by
» hard consonant, the - ( Ustun) is
pronounced like a, the ~7~ {Esre) like y,
and the _!_ {Utru) like o or u. Follo-
wing, however, a soft consonant, the ^
{Ustun) is to be read as e, the~7" {Esre)
as i, and the > {Utru) as o or u. In the
middle and at the end of words, without
Hamzalif , the Alif is always pronounced
like a, but with Hamzalif, like e.
;_» Ba is our b. After Ta, Tlia, Jim, Cha,
Sin, Shin, Ssa4, Tla\ Qaf, Gef it is often
read like p.
L^ Pa is our p.
tty Ta is our t. In the conjugation of some
verbs it is changed into Dal.
^AJ Tha is our s or ss, except the word vi»JLj
tult. The Arabs projiounce it like th. ■ .
^ Jim , the Italian g before e or i. When
t» meeting the consonants named above in
connection with the letter i_j, it is pro-
nounced like Tchim.
Tchin like. our Qh in chess.
Hha lika ^ in h a V e.
Cha, the german ch in brauchen.
Dal like d. It is pronounced like t when
meeting the consonants named above in
connection with the letter i_y .
Dhal like z.
Ra like;/-.
Za like our z.
Sin like s, ss.
Shin like sh.
t
;
)
is
e
e
o
J
r
<Ssa(2 like sharp ss.
Ddad, like our' z; the Arabs pronounce
it like d.
Tta like t or M; it is often confounded
with Ta and Dal.
Zza like our z.
Ain like a strong guttural and nasal a,
y, "•
Ghain like j guttural.
i^a like our/.
Qo/like A, iA or ck.
Kaf, like y or k, as in the french words
qui, quel.
Gef, accords with our g in give; in
some eases it is pronounced like gi very
soft; in the middle of words and in some
terminations like y.
■^5= SaghuT Nun, i. e. mute Nun, like the
french nasal -n in mon, son.
Lam our I; in some cases it is soft like
^in limb, in some hard like ^ in all.
Mint, like m.
Nun ou* n; but when followed by a Ba,
it is pronounced' like m.
Waw our * or «; furnished with Utru,
it is pronounced like « in conjunction
with hard consonants ; like german u or o,
how ever, in conjunction with soft ones.
Ha like our h ; at the end of words it is
mostly pronounced like a or e.
Lamelif, la or lia (Ligature).
Ya , when a consonant like our y, when a
vowel' like i\ it represents a vowel only
in the middle or at the end of words.
' {/ijton is placed over the consonants and
pronounced like a with a hard consonant,
like e with a soft one.
^ Esre below the consonants , is pronounced
like vowel y with a hard consonant, but
like i with a soft one.
» Utru is pronounced like o or u with a hard
consonant, but like o or ti with a soft one.
ff Iki ustun (double Ustun) like -en.
^ Iki esre (double Esre) like in.
S Iki utru (double Utru) like on or un.
The three last marks are only employed in
Arabic words.
ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS.
" Jesm (sign of pause) is placed over a
consonant wanting a vowel, foUojv^ed by an
other consonant.
- Teshdid or Shedde when placed over -a con-
sonant doubles it.
~ Meddelif or Medda, is only placed over the
Alif, which, then, is always pr'onounced
like a.
„ Hamzelif or /^amjo; placed over Elif, is
pronounced like e\ over Waw, like «,
over Ya, like i; at the end of words, end-
ing with a vowel , like i.
27
PERSIAN
Form
Pronun-
ciation
Numer:
value
-
Name.
uncon-
connected
with a
connected
connected
with a.
Notes
nected
preceding
letter
with both
following
letter
Elif
1
L
Spirilus lems
1
•
Many Arabic words liaving been
Ba
L^
>wA-
J<.
J
b
2
introduced into the Persian language,
Pa
V
1-^
V
V
P
the Persian alphabet consists of 32
consonants, which are written and
Ta .
CJ
i^ih
jC
'J
t soft
400
read from right to left; of these
consonants, 28 are common 10 both
Tha
^
e*.
S sharp
500
languages; only the following four
are purely Persian :
Jim
C
€
^
^
J
3
vc; <^
Tchim
V
V
tch
hh sharp
8
Hha
VOWELS.
Cha
t
e
4X
;^
1^
kh guttur.
COO
All Persian letters ai*e consonants,
Dal
d
4
except Elif,Waw andYa, which also
supply long vowels (theWaw, some-
Dhal
j
tV
Z soft
700
times, Represents a short vowel):
Ra
;
7
r
200
t a ^ w ^ y/
Za
;
>
Z soft
7
The short vowels are written thus :
Zha
,)
U"
AM
Ml
zhorjfrench
S sharp
60
■^Zabar, a ~Zir,e ^Pish, u
Sin
ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS.
Shin
A
A
-ii.
sh-
300
p Hamza, at the end of a word.
Ssad
U^
ua.
.tO.
S sharp
90
800
sometimes supplies the Elif; it is
also placed above an Elif in the
Ddad
J>
ya.
.«a.
jO
Z hard
middle of a word , when the Elif
Tta
Ja
ia
k
■is
t
9
represents a consonant.
Zza
h
ii
k
is
Z ' hard
900
» Teshdid, doables the Melter
over which it is placed.
Ain
t
t
X
' s.
Spiritus lenis
70
— Media. Instead of an Elif
Ghain
k.
£
gh guttur.
1000
written twice , a Medda is placed
over it. It is properly a second Elif,
Fa
o
l-A
A
i
f
■ 80
but written lengthwise ; sometimes it
has a vertical form.
Qaf
O
i3
ii
ii , '
k guttur.
100
" Jezma, over a consonant by
Kaf
d
.^X
^r
k
• 20
which a syllable ends. Itis also placed
r ovej- Waw or Ya, when they form a
Gaf
dS
jC
^x
4=i
g palatal
diphthong with, a preceding.
Lam
J
J^
JL
J
1
30
Mim
r
r
♦ '
JO
m
40
CIPHERS.
50
' To write numbers , the Persians
Nun
o
ij"
X
j
n
employ either the alphabet , or the
6
5
Arabic ciphers (see under).
Waw
8
^
X
^
jS
_h
Ha
LIGATURE.
Ya
^5
15
J.
J
yandi
19
it 5^. Lam-l!lif, la.
28
AFGHAN OR PUSHTOO
Figure
Pronun-
ciation
SigUTO-
Pronun-
unconnected
in the mfdst
nt the com-
unconnected
in the tnidet
at the coin-
mcncement
ciation
f
1 L
1
a, a, i, u
-ci
sh
•
<->
A
J
b
C*'
^ -t*
-i*
khin
V
^
i
p
U»
.<a.
ja
ss
lo
X.
J
t
U^
^
JO
dz
^
*
'i
tt
L
ii
is
t
<D
X
t's
ii;
^
16 '
z
t
A
A
t's
£
X
£
£6, a
C
^
. s«.
j
t
X
£
gh
£
V
?-
ch
o
i
i
f
C
£\
a>
h
O
£
i>
k,q
t
is.
S-
kh
aS"
^ jC
^ r
k
t>
d.
d
C^
c^if
r
g
i
«>
^
44
J
JL
J
1
i>
tX
z
r •
+
X
m
;
7
)
1-
C) :
A
j
n
J
J
J
IT
vy
g; *
i
rrn
)
7
)
Z
J
^
i
W U
t
s
iL
dz
S 21
•«■
St
h
■3 )
-J /
^ '^
jz
P-
a
U"
AM
Ml
s
iS
A
J
y, e, i, ai
Before the introduction of avabic words, the
original Pushtoo alphabet consisted only of
29 different sonijds; at present, theAfghans make
use also of the 28 arable letters , and of these
four letters used in Persian : i_> a^ ••• and <^,
from which results an alphabet of 40 different
characters which are all consonants.
The Pushtoo vowels are the same as the
Arabic and Persian :
^_ Zabar or Fatha a , -r Zer or K<isruh e,
_2_ Pesh or Zammah u.
They areplaced either above or under the conso-
nant beginning a syllable, as: v^ 6o, *_J bi,
<J bu. Zabar followed by ^ is read as the
NOTES.
diphthong au; followed by ^, as the diph-
thong ai. "
_£:_ or _2_Jesm or Jeswah indicates that the
consonant, has no vowel and the syllable
is finished.
^^ Meddah or Medd, an other form of Klif,
, is sign of producing a syllable.
_;!;_ Teshdid indicates that a consonant is to
be pronounced double.
_:^ Wesla , joining - mark.
_:_ Hamzah supplies the place of Elif.
-^- ^~ -2_ Tanwin is the arable Nunation at
the end of the words , pronounced by ad-
ding a n to the wjwels: an, in, yn.
29
COPTIC
Figure
3V
i
B
s
r
1
A
2v.
e
e
^
^ 1
H
H
e
O 1
I
I
R
K !
\
•1
U
JUL
H
Jl
E
I
n
n
p
P
c
T
T
«f
V
<I>
*
X
X
-qr
t.
UJ
«3
q
q
8
&
I)
i>
59
sy
X
2t
(ftf^
T
+
r
a
Pronunciatioii
Alpha
Vida
Gamma
Dalfla
Ei
Zida
Hida
Thida
Jauda
Kabba
Laula
Mi
Ni
Exi
Pi
Ro
Sima
Dau
He
Phi
Chi
Ebsi
Fei
Hori
Chei
Scei
Giangia
Scima
Dei Ligature
So
a
b V
d
(■
z
T
th
k
1
m
n
X
short
p b
r
s
t d
i, ilGerm.
ph
ch sc
P.s
long
f ph
h
kh
sh
g dsh
sk sc gh
ti
Ciplier 6
Notes
The Coptic language is divided into two dialects : the
upper - egyptian or thebaic or sahldlc, 'and the lower-
egyptian or mcmphitic or Coptic par excellence,
to which may be added a third, the bashmuric dia-
lect. The letters ^ — tU in the Coptic alphabet
are of greek origin ; tf — on the other hand sig-
nify sounds which either wanted at all in the greek
language , or which since the christian era no longer
used in writing; they are taken from the older egyptian.
This sign '^ denotes the syllable ti ; its prototype
is the Semitic and greek Tau. ' i
The vowels arc :
,?. e I o,
the 00 is written by OV, •il"' '" greek; before
a consonant it is pronounced by 00, before a vowel
by V. The Coptic diphthongs are :
^.l ei 01
pronounced in the sahidic dialect only as t, t, T, in
tlio memphilic , however , as the german diphthongs
ai, ei, oi.
READING -SIGNS AND PUNCTUATION.
' above a letter : the greek gravis.
^ behind a word in sahidic manuscripts: dividing
sign.
'I* signilies u greater pause , liki' our semicolon or
point.
; signiQcs a shoj^ter pause, like our comma.
— sign of division.
sign of abbreviature above the charflvfers.
r^ grapliic sign above some characters in sahidic
manuscripts.
' diacritic sign behind some words in sahidic manu-
scripts.
f Comma, only in later sahidic manuscripts.
• orthographic sign above some characters in raem-
phitic books.
NUMERICAL VALUE.
The numerical value of the coptic characters is the
same as in greek.- Numerals are written by — , above
the letters; the thousands are marked by , below near
the letter, q (90) supplies the place of the greek H,
ftoppoj.
30
CHINESE.
A calculation, based upon the Imperial Chinese Dictionary, shows that the Chinese language is
represented by 43,496 characters or symbols. Of this number 13,UO0 are totally irrelevant and con-
sist of signs which are obsolete , incorrectly formed, and unexplained. For the expressions in ordi-
nary literature about 4000 signs appear to suffice. The writings of Con-foo-tse (Confucius) and his
disciples can even be read by the help of only 2500 characters, and a knowledge of these will enable
the student tolera^ily to understand all Chinese works on history and philosophy. In lieu of the
phonetic and lexicographical system, which appertains to most languages, the Chinese have adopted
214 signs any of which, being placed by the side of an unknown character, indicates at once its
pronunciation. These indicators of sound, are termed by the Chinese "Tribunalu". European gram-
marians have called them **Keys" or "Radicals". Occasionally the "Tones" (modulating accents) are
appended at the top or foot of the character, at the right or the left side. Such accents are de-
scribed as follows,
1 o [] even tone. 2 0© ew^eritt^ tone. 3 Q falling tone. 4 Q rising tone.
The "Keys" are divided into 17 Classes, according to the number of strokes of which each
character is composed, and are arranged in the following order:
Class
10. consisting of 10 strokes extends from Nr.lS7-^194
Class
1. consisting of 1 stroke extends from Nr. 1 — 6
» » 7—29
» » 30- 60
» w 61—94
» .. 95—117
» » 118—146
.. .. 147—166
» .. 167-175
» .. 176-186
2.
»
» 2 strokes
a.
»
» 3 »
4.
n
» 4 »
6.
n
» 5
6.
M
» 6 ■!
7.
»
1. 7
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
) 11
. 12
» 13
» 14
» 15
» 16
17
» 195—200
» 201—204
» 205—208
» 209—210
.1 211
» 212-213
» 214
1 -— o y'i, one
2 I c/w'^, perpen-
dicular stroke
3 • o Hen, point
4 J QpjS'i,strokeslant-
ing to the left
5 Li o yh crooked
stroke
6 J kiu, hooked
stroke
^o~~* urh, two
8 o— •— yitien - yiw a
9 y V o jin, man
10 /L o cAa/i, foot
i^i H ^v shhh, to enter
. 1^ 7V o pah, eight
13 fj kwah, desert
14 o *"> mien, to cover
° V
15 y pm, ice
16 Wj chi, bench
20 ^
' o
21o tj
22 [_
23 Ljo
24 To
25° |V
26 n °
27 JPo
28 J^
29 :^°
30° p
k&n
lou, knife
US, strength
chwen, equal ,
triangle
pi, spoon
fang, to pull out
kwah, division
between fields
shiah, ten
poh, to divine
tsshi
shi, shelter
chee, perverse
yiu, again,
moreover
kiu, mouth
hioei, return
too, the ground
33 -^o
34 X
35 ^°
36 ^°
38 it"
39 -J-
40 o*-^
41 \J
44 ;=!"
45 l^°
46 U4°
48 X
s's, scholar
fanfun
tsieh, slowly
dsi^h, evening
td, great
nil, girl
tse, son, child
mou or poSn-an'
hafc
tsun, inch
sioti. small
kang, horrible
shi, corpse
tsoii
san, mountain
chuSn, stream
kbng, artisan,
time
31
49 ^ ° chi, self
50 m chin, cloth
o
51 ~Y~ fcaw, shielcl,spear
•fii? p yj i/wSW; source
•53o/ J/*n, hut
54 jy isow, long walk
• 55 ^ TT kong , higher
56 Vi yiSh, spear
57 *~^ kdng, a bow
58 ^L-o kway, Come!
59 ^ san, coat
60 -^ shuang-jin, two
y o men
61 jL|\ sm, heart
62 ^Ji^ ftd/i, a lance
63 P to'oo^ inner door
64 "f" sheu, hand
65 ^ tz', branch
66 ^^ chi; the stalk
67 ^>C. funn, gentiJe
68 o^ tou, a measure
69
/X J, cto/, hatchet,
o I . pound
"'^ ■ /J fang, a square,
o ..^ then
^1 TC fi, no
72 S sh^h, sun, day
73 Q yuih, to talk
74 1^ yueh, moon
75 /Jv o moh, tree
76 y^ chi&n, debtor
77 _LL fs', to stop
78 ^ ^i^j wicked
79 3^ ^^^ > ^^^ young
° of animals
80 "ft f'6, is not
81 J^' pi, to compare
82 o "C '"<'*'; feather
83 i\t sz, clan
84 ^1^ cni, an-
85 7j> shway, water
86
,j^
chaw, fire
87 /Iv ^SOM, claws, nails
88 ^ f'6h, father
?t
89 o >^. yow, sign
90 ^1 chwang , pole
91 ij /-J pt^n, spUnter
92 o^ 2/a/i, teeth
93o"T^ nJM; ox
94 7V cA/.^n, dog
95o.Z^ yuSn, intermin-
able
96 jG. o w*'^^^ gem
9^ o IS. ^w^oA, melon
98 „^ wd/i, tiles,
1 1 earthenware
99 W o fcon, sweet
100 "-t- senn, to live, to
fflgive birth
ybng, to use
102 W o tihn, field
103 ■^to pj^/j, piece
104 y o tsiSh, sick
105 '^ ^o fah, to divide
106 f-I o buh , white
107 o /X^ 6i, skin
108 JJ^ min, implement
109 o mbh, eye
110 o'^ mabh, spear
111 ''^ s/it, arrow
112 "** D sAi^ft, stone
113 ^Iv sz^ to admonish
114
1^
nahy or shbh,
--. cla pper of a b ell
115o^lV Aaw, grain
116 y Vo J/M^/i, cave
117 ji-o Zi^, to stand
118 ' \ choh, bamboo
119 o -^V. mi, rice
^°
120 ^ • s':, silk
32
21 'ffij f'ow, jar
22°|)M| /canj, hedge
23
j/an^, sheep
25
26
27
fe, handle of a
spade
yueh, to mani-
o fest, a baton
24 ?|^ M, long feathers
^o iffo, old
»S Mr/i; and
28 jA- ull, the ear
29
30 1^ jbh, flesh
31 t^J cWn, an official
32 'H <s'z, from one self
go "^ ° isz, to arrive,
-*- extreme
34 y cMm, mortar
35 p5" o chweh; tongue
36 yif- chiah, strong
37
, 7n" cfttM^
vessel
38 H A;Mn, inferior or-
"^^ ° der of nature
39 "gf^ seh, colour
40 !/Jll* fsa6 , grass
42 ii^ chdng, insects
43
^'
shweh, blood
#— o
44 -^^ y^n, to walk, to
act
45 ,^J i, clothing
46 ffi yiu, twilight
47 @ c/i!^K, to see
48'
krlh, horn, cor-
ner
49 == ni&n, word
o r-*
^^\^ /coA, apertures
50 ^ • ,
^-* o m rocks
51 1^ tou, head
52 :^^ sftw, swine
53 J^ '''**' superior or-
der of animals
54
m
pei, valuables
55 ,^^ cMh, red
56 /\zo tsou, to walk
57 ^ o <so/i, leg
58 -^' s/jm^ body
C/JM, cart
-^y- sin, bitter, hard-
ships
_/en, an hour,
59 o
60°
Q azure
62 _^Ci iseW; to run
63 E o /e, a town
64 l=J j^oo^ twilight
65 7|\ fsj'g^ to separate
66 ^ li, one third of
a mile
67 .St. o cto,gold,metal
68,
chang, long
.69 Pt mun, a door
70jjjp. /oM, a mound
71o^J
rf«, to accomplish
72 °^ cfea/i, fine
yu, ram
74 P5 ^ tsin, green
75 -^p ^ee/i, not
.76 o |flj OTJew, face
77 -^ o /i^ft^ leather
78 -^ ftwoy, high
'y itt7 c/j}M^ leeks
.80 o El j/in^a sound, tone
.81
.82
.83
.84
I hieh, a sheet, a
leaf
^ f'^ng, wind
/ee, to fly
sheh, to eat
K'
.85 "Sr s/ieM, head
.86
87
.89
.90
c
.91
.92
shiang, scent ■
maa, horse
kivilh. bones
/cao, high
kab, whiskers,
beard
toUf to fight
i§ft chang, sweet
lii wine
IHJ
33
193
li^h, to cup
194 ^ kway, devil
195 ^ nil, fish
196 @L «w6, bird
197
198
199
200,
loOf brine
Ibh, stag
m^ft, wheat
md, hemp
201
hwmig, yellow
202 ^i shii, millet
o ''■l>
203 M 'M/,, black
204 "3^ cfe', embroidery
205 o hI, mix, a toad
206 ml ^2W, tripod
207 o 8^ ^00; drum
208 ^ ° cte; rat
209 S_ joje/i, nose
210 ^■•K ° 'SJ, to put in or-
^ der, equal
211 I44| /s'S; the back
•^ teeth
212^^1 ^""S' dragon
213 ^k kway, tortoise
214 'ffiS" y^^> * musical
"fl o instrument
AEITHMETICAL FIGURES.
All arithmetical combinations are performed by 17 Cardinal iigures. In the subjoined
table, three different forms of numerical characters are given. The series in the left
column represents the jj/am hand which serves for literary and' ordinary purposes. In the
middle column wards are employed instead of figures. This class is used in bonds , con-
tracts etc., where it Is of importance to guard against alterations and fraud. The figures
in the right column, written in a "running hand", are used by merchants and traders in
keeping their business accounts.
n If
rAi-
l| urh, 2
ll| sail, 3
^ s'z, 4
-g 00, 5
— •- loh, 6
+ tS^+
shihh .
-j5 peh,
■^ tsi^n ,
~Tj van,
%
ee.
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
— ■— .
chab* 1,000,000
c/im^ 10,000,000
jf^o ny&h, 100,000,000'
The ■numbers by which 10, 100 etc. are multiplied are placed at the top of the multiplicand.
The numbers added to ten etc., are marked below the figure.
Example -f- ten. -\- twice ten and two , or 22.
34
JAPANESE
IN THE KATA-KANA chaeaCtee.
(This tyiJe was cut
under the direction
of Prof. J. HOFFMAS
of Leyden and cas
by N. Tbttbeode
in Eotterdam.)
I-EO-FA
(Abe).
The Japanese Alphabet
organically arranged. *
25 # yi
1 -f 1
1 T a
2.5 'f se
49 '<' ba
26 J no
2 XI ro
5 V wa
56 'f ' ze
50 /^f pa
3 2. e
27 J-- si
51 -^ fe
57 ?(■
3 /■> fa, va
4 -^ i
28 2? zi
52 -n: be
28 ^ ku
4 — ni
5 ?f
29 y so
53 ^i pe
29 -Y ya
5 ^ fo
6 9" wo
30 y zo
54 t fl
30 'T ma
6 -^ fe, ve
7 ^^ U
31 y, SU
55 e bi
31 ^ ke
7 S to
8 -Y ya
. 32 X' ZU
56 C° pi
9 X ye
33 :? ta
57 * fo
32 y fu
8 ^ Isi
10 # yi
34 ;?" da
58 ^ bo
33 :z ko
9 ij ri
U 3 yo
35 f te
59 ^ po
34 X ye
10 5? nil
15 X yu
36 f de
60 y fu
35 T te
11 iw ru
13 >f ka
37 f- tsi
61 y bu •
36 7 a
12 9" wo
14 1] ga
38 f dsi
65 V° pu
63 -f na
15 :!r ke
39 1^ to
37 -^ sa
13 y wa
16 ^ ge
40 K do
64 + ne
38 =(f ki
14 :*' ka
17 ^ ki
41 y tsu
65 - ni
65 y no
39 X yu
15 5 yo
18 Jf' gi
42 y dsu
67 K nu
40 M me
16 ^ da
19 n ko
43 "^ ma
68 y n
41 2. mi
17 l^ re
so :?' go
44 ;^ me
69 > ra
42 l^ si
18 y so
51 :? ku
45 2. mi
70 u' re
22 ?" gu
46 -t mo
71 D ri
75 O ro
43 2 e
19 J' tsu
S3 f- sa
47 A' mu
44 Z fi, \i
20 ^ ne
54 f za
48 /'^ fa
73 iw ru
45 '^..1110
51 :f na
• ''k
* The accent m'ffori^ consisting of two minute marks at tlie
46 1f «(■
* > •■«
right of the syllable, softens the consonant. The accent marw.
47 ?^„ SU
a dot likewise at the right, hardens the consonant. By the
23 U mu
addition of these marks and the «^ unattended by a vowel.
54 !> u
the letters originally 47, are raised to the number of 73.
ABBREVIATIONS AND ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS.
1 koto. T' goto. y site. i tama.
% Sign of doubling a letter, placed In the middle line.
( Sign of doubling a syllable.
1 Sign of lengthening a vowel.
° Full stop. % comma, towards the right, beyond the middle line.
35
SANSCRIT
CONSONANTS.
Each couaonant is sounded with an inherent
short a.
GUTTDBALS.
ka
li.ha
3T ga
^ gha
T I'la
PALATALS.
cha
ch'ha
j'ha
fia
CEREBEALS.
fa
tha
da
dba
na
FT
DENTALS.
ta
tlia
da
dha
na
LABIALS.
^
pa
pha
ba
blia
ma
SEMI-VOWELS.
^ ra
rJf la
^ va
SIBILANTS Jlsd
ASPIRATES.
5r
^
sha
sh'ha
sa
ha
VOWELS.
The vowels in the left row are uttered as initials
or are placed before their consonants. The vowel-
signs in the right division being medials and finals,
coalesce with their consonants, and are respec-
tively p.aced over, under, before and after
the letters.
r
C
FT
u
r
A
r
I
i
DIPHTHONGS.
^ e
J^ ai
srr
35 1
This character peculiar
to the Big -Veda has a,
Bound which partakes
of^andr. It stands for
the cerebral da. When
it represents the aspi-
rate of this letter , it is
expressed by^gj {l/ia).
m
au
COALESCENT VOWELS.
follows llie consonant
Ta
f.
( I precedes »
I 1 follows «
^ U under »
<^ u »
o r „
<t. r » »
■nl .. ..
c^l „ „
"^ C over i»
=^ ai «
•\
T follows ).
NASAL SOUNDS.
. Anusvcira and isj Anundsika,
are substitutes for m and ii. The auun&sika has
its place above the letter or laterally wth viraraa
underneath.
; h (orproperiyg) visarga, 4* jihv^miiiiya
and }i upadhra^niya
are strong final aspirates. The visdMTOfhich Is
the substitute for s ancUe^s the only one in com-
mon use. The last twoTBgns bear also the com-
mon designation of ardhavisarga.
ADDITIONAL SIGNS.
•^ Virama (pause) is placet! under a final con-
sonant , and denotes the absence of the inhe-
rent short a.
I indicates the close of a sentence, ending in
a vowel, a diphthong or a visarga. In poetry it
denotes the half of a verse. At the end of a
verse or a period this mark is doubled .|{.
sX serves 1. as the sign of hiatus, 2. as sign of
the elision of a aiter e and o, 3. as the sign
of coalescence of two a.
O is the 'Sign of abbreviation.
r and -^ represent the letter r. The former sign
is pronounced before the consonant (and the
semivowel ri) at the top of which it is placed;
the latter sign is placed under the consonant
and sounded after it.
PEOSODIAL MARKS.
I denotes brevity, ^ length.
ACCENTS.
_ Anudatia or grave accent stands under the vowel.
I Svarita or circumflex is put over the vowel,
in connexion with these marks the numerals
J and 3 serve as accents.
NUMEBALS.
? ^ ^ 8 H ^ o t; ^
1234567 890
5*
36
SANSCRIT
The similarity of shape occasions mistakes in correcting proofs; it may therefore be of advantage both to
compositors and readers of proofs to make use of the annexed numbers of reference. The form of the
subjoined Alphabet differs from'thut which precedes, but is superior in point of correctness.
OUWJU
w
.- -_£._-.— - —
1 ^
a
"1?
28 ^•*
re(wittiAcc.)
53 ^
kya
79^
nka
-^ ^
a
ai(witliAGC.)
54 ^
kra
80^
hkta
3^
i
29 «*
raiih
55 ^
kra
81^
rikja
't
i
30 :
56 15
kla
82 IP
nkslia
5 ^
u
31 .
57 H
kva
83^
iiklia
6 T35
u
32 'ii
58 ^
ksha (x)
84 ^
hkhjra
^ ^
ri
33 1
^
59 ^
ksh
85^
liga
8 ^
f'
34 II
5^
60 ^
kslima
86^
ligya
9 ^
H
35 O
en
61 ^
kshya
87 ^
ligha
10 _^
ii
36 -
o
62 ^
kshva
88^
ligliya
11 ^
e
37 S
63 ^
kha
89 ^.
hghra
12 T
a
38 -
64 1^
kh
90 f
liiia
13 f
i
39 s
o
65 ;^
khya
91 -^
cha (ca)
14 -t
i
40 •■
1
66 J\
ga
92 ^
ch(c)
15 T
ri
41 -
1
67 T
g
93 IT
cca
16 v3
u
42 1
00
68 ^
gna
94 :^
ccha
17 <N
u
43 ^
en
69 IVl
gnya
95^
cua
18 t
ri
44 R
70 Z(
gra
96 xJT
cma
19 6
ri
45 n
71 TUf
grya
97 ^
cya
20 tB
]i
46 ^
ka
Ti ^
gha
98 ^
rha
21 c?
li
47 ^
kka
73 T
gh
99^
clira
22 -N
e
48 ^
kta
74 ^
glina
100 IH'
ja
23 -^
ai
49 =Pf
ktya
75 TX{
ghina
101 5.
J
24-^
50 ^
ktva
76 TZI
giiya
102 15f
jja
25 ^1
e(wilh Ace.)
51 15
kna
7^ 'ST
ghia
103 ^
jiia
26 ^f
re
52 ^
kma
78 g:
na
104 5
jfi
37.
SANSCRIT
105 ^
ijha
133 ^
ndra
161 ^
th
thya
189 T2T
dhya
106 li^T
jya
134^
ndrya
162 ^
190 ^
dhra
107 «[
jra
135 IJ^
ndlia
163 ^
da'
191 U[
dhva
108 If
jva
136 ^
nna
164^
du
192 7i
na
109 ^
jha
137 ^
nya
165^
du
193 ^
n
110 v^^^
jha
138 ^
nva
166 ^
dri
194 rJT
nta
111 »I
na
139 W
ta
167 ^
dga
195 n?T
ntya
112 >
fi
140 r
t
168 f
dgha
196 ^
ntra
113 -^
nca
"1 i^
tka
169 ^
dda
197 t^
nda
li4 ^
nja
142 ^
tta
™f
ddba
198^
ndra
115 Z
fa
143 ^
ttya
171 sr
ddya
199 ^
ndha
116 5
tka
144 -^
ttra
172 ^
ddha
200 7^
ndhra
'"I
tfa-
145 ^
ttva
173 ^
ddhya
201 ^
nna
118 25J
tya
146 (vT
tna
174 ^
dna
202 ^
npra
119 3
tha
147 jq
tpa
175 1
dba
203 rif;
npha
120 ^
thya
148 3f
tpra
176 ^
dbra
204 ^
nphra
1215
thra
149 rqi
tplia
177 ^
dbha
205 w^
nma
122 5
da
15" Wi
tphra
178 ^
dbhya
206 ^
nya
123 f
dda
151 WI
tma
179 ^
dma
207 ?^
nsa
124 f
dda
152 iW(
tmya
180 g
dya
208 -q
pa
125 ^
dha
153 HT
tya
181 ^
dra
209 X
P
126 ST
^hya
154 "^
tra
182 Xf
drya
210 TT
pta
127^
dhra
155 ^
trya
183 ^
dva
211 ?!
pna
12s IIJ
na
156 i^
tva
184 U
dvya
212 "OJ
ppa
129 IJ^
n
157 m
tsa
185 \f
dha
213 TJT
pma
130 ?!?
nta
158 1^
tsna
186 \
dh
214 TZf
pya
131 ^
ntha
159 m
tsya
187 y
dhiia
215 U
pra
132 ^
nda
160 ^
tha
188 Of
dhma
216 5J
pla
38
SANSCRIT
217 -CSf
pva
245 H
ya
273 XS(
9ra
301 -^
sma
218 T^
psa
246 1
y
274 -^
9la
302 ^
smya
219 Tf^
pha
247 of
y
275 T^
9va
303 ^
sya
220 "Sf
ba
248 zq
yya
276 ■55!'
99a
304 ^
sra
221 «
b
249 ^
ra
277 lEf
slia
305 ^
sva
222 asf
bgha
250 ^
ru
278 1&
sh
306 ^
ssa
223 ^
bja
251 ^
ru
279 ■?■
shta
307 5
ha
224 Sg
bda
252 ^
la
280 -^
slitya
308 5
h
225 «%r
bdha
253 ^
I
281 ^
shtra
309 ^
hri
226 f
bba
254 ^
Ika
282^
shtrya
^^«^
hna
iiii'^ oil
bbha
255 ^
Ipa
283 ^
shtrya
311.^
hna
228 ^
bra
256 ^
Ima
284 T|
slitya
312 ^
hma
229 ^
blia
257 ^
lya
285 ^
slitha
313 ^
hya
230 )■
bh
258 -^
lla
286 1B(J[
skna
314 ^
bra
231 vq
bhya
259 ^
Iva
287 ■Qq'
shpa
'''M
hia
232 ^
bhra
260 of
va
288 ■Ggr
sbpra
316 5
hva
233 ^
bhva
261 o
V
289 TSfJ
shina
317 3E
t
234 IT
ma
262 ««
V
290 ^
shya
318 ;5
Iha
235 I
m
263 olj
vya
291 ^
sa
319 e|
1
236 ^
miia
264 Sf
vra
292 ^
s
320 ^
2
237 Tq
mpa
265 f
vva
293 ^
sku
321 ^
3
238 ig
mpra
266 ^
9a
294 ^
skha
322 ^
4
239 ^
mba
267 ^
<?a
295 ^
sta
323 l|
5
240 J^
mblia
268 ^
9
296^
stra
324 ^
6
241 T^
mya
269 St-
9
297 ^
stha
325 nS
7
242 ^
mra
270 ^
9ca
298 ^
sna
326 t
8
243 ^
mla
271 "^
9cya
299 ^
spa
327 Q
9
244 J^
msa
272 ^
9na
300 ^
spha
;{2S
ay
TAMIL
The Tamil language was earlier cultivated than the other members of the Dravidian family.
It includes two dialects the (ancient) Shen -Tamil and the (modern) Kodun -Tamil. Tamil
is spoken throughout the plain of the Carnatic, below the ghauts from Pulicat to cape Co-
morin, to the neighbourhood of Trivandrum; also in the northern and western part of
Ceylon where in ancient times Tamilians established their settlements. This language has
12 vowels and 18 consonants. It is read from left to right.
SHORT VOWELS.
^
a
as in America
^
1
» » fill
9L
u
>• » full
OT
e
11 11 self
9
» 11 long
THE CORRESPONDING LONG VOWELS
^
k
in ah
/T:
i
11 feel
gjfflfl
u
» foo
ST
e
11 they
g?
6
11 sole
DIPHTHONGS.
^
ey
in eye
^srr
ou
11 foul
im
lL
<sssr
ill
p
SSI
lU
if
<SV
sii
err
k
A
s
n
t
n
CONSONANTS.
ng in long
as gn in french regne
like t d of Sanscrit cerebrals
like n of Sanscrit cerebral
P
m
r rolled, partly like a cerebral,
■ partly like a dental
n as in on
y
r
1
V
1
1
LIQUIDS.
as in yes
11 11 round
11 » lap
hard, it is of cerebral character
intermediate between r and 1.
The consonants have been divided intoroMj'A,
soft and intermediate sounds. The first class
includes the tenues [d, f, lL, ^, u, pY
The second class contains the corresponding
Nasals. The third class contains the Liquids.
A dot placed at the top of a consonant indi-
cates the absence of a vowel , but is omitted
in native MSS.
The following rules are to be noticed in
the pronunciation.
a) Short a, before the soft letters asr, em,
the intermediate letters n ., eO, err, i^, and
at the end of polysyllabic words, sounds like
e in men.
b) Combined with a preceding it it receives
the same sound.
c) The vowels e and e as initials are pro-
nounced as if y were placed before them.
d) The vowels i (!) and e (e) before Unguals
(lL, essr and sr, p and ^] are respectively
articulated somewhat deeper than the French
u and eu.
e) The consonants s, ^, u are only har-
dened as initial letters, or when doubled in the
middle of a word. The same is the case with
I— which does not occur as an initial in pure
Tamil words.
f) When « , i-l- , ^, u occur as medials of
a word, s sounds like cA, u like b, g like
ih, and i^ like the Sanscrit cerebral d.
g) f is always sharply hissed like ss. When
the nasal (gj precedes, it coalesces with it and
sounds like ng (in angel). When doubled after
lL, or p, it sounds like ch (in church).
h) e and y at the end of a syllable have an
intermediate sound of i (in vine) and at (in
vain).
i) Double p sounds like tt. After the cor-
responding nasal esr, it may be pronounced
like d.
40
The Tamil Alphabet being syllabic, a word is diyisible in any part, so long as the con-
sonant remains united with its vowel. In punctuation the full stop alone is employed.
The vowels, in their separate forms, are only used as initials. The following table
shows their mode of coalition whith the consonants. The short a, as in Sanscrit, is not
expressed before a consonant.
a
k
i
i
u
ft
e
6
fy
6
au
^
^
^
!T-
9_
OSKT
ST
,6r
©
5?
^
^srr
k
<s
S!X
Q
Q
©
.9^
Qd5
(?«
(S3)<£
Qam
QS!J
QdBsrr
u
s
3^1
s
9
at
©
Qa^
Qa^
(53} 3^
Qa'fT
Qa=n
QdFsrr
n
&
(SJ/J
(§§l
<S
mi
^\
Q{S5
Ca (SJ
S5>(S5
Q^n
Qi^fi
©(Sjsrr
t
/_
/_/T
f
W-
®
(B
Q/_
(?/_
65) L_
Qi—i
Qi_n
Q/_iSlT
n
SSSI
&
(S!f3f^
4>aaf
loiih
^6g»M
Qbiil
Qesm
asssT
Q(S33)
Q^^
QdMisr.
t
^
^1
P
^
-ja
^T
Q^
Q^
6S)SB
Q^IT
Q^!X
Qpsa
n
JS
fsn
^
^
M
Ml
QjB
Qj5
eS)iB
QlBl
QjBfT
Qjsen
P
u
Lll
lSI
d
4
hb
Qu
Qu
(SS)U^
•Qui
Quit
Qusn
ID
tD
L£)l
iB
i£
(iP
^
Qll
Qld
<SS)Lt:
Qixiu
Qlli
QwsfT
y
\u
lUfT
uSl
uS
N
u
Qiu
Qiu
SSilU
Qturr
Qiui
QtUSfT
r
JJ
an
■ffl
if
&
®
Qa
Qjj
SSiO
Qjjj
Quit
Qnstr
1
w
svn
eS
eS
syi
Mil
Qsv
Qsv
gfev-
Qsvn
Qsvi
Qsvsn
V
m
SUl
sSl
Si?
a/
m
Qsu
Qsu
SSISU
Qsun
Qsun
QsUStT
1
W
iprr
!fi
!^
(^
^
Qip
Qip
SSiLp
Qipi
QtfilT
Qipsft
1
str
snr/7
sifl
srf
(SYJ
®
QsfT
Qsn
8srr
QstTIT
QSTTU
QsfTsa
r
P
(ff
^
/^
JV
jjn
Qp
Qp
sstp
Q(f>j'
QQTf
QpSfT
n
SST
&
ssFl
ibaf
MU
^)IT
Qssr
QSST
'^oST
Q(S3)
Q(6S}
QsSTSfT
si^ 61^.
ADDITIONAL LITTERS AND CONTRACTIONS,
sifl si^ sin) SUV o°o L^ (^^ . <s»_
sh sha shi shi s sa ch Month
Year Om ^r/a"
NUMERALS.
<35a_/B7.9^®d^sr^<s>(D
n ^
12345678 9 10
100 1000
Examples of compound numbers, iO« = 11, lOa,
= 12 etc.
41
ZEND
BURMESE
FORM
SOUND
FOEM
SOUND
VOWELS
FORM
SOUND
FORM
SOUND
X>
a
a
^
^
Z
MS
33
a
G
e
J
i
ro
t
330
a
33
ey
7>
i
-?
t
^
ie
G@0
ail
)
11
d
th
ee
6@0^
au
«
9
u
>j>
d
§
U
33
an
f
e (e)
^
dh
©
8
u 56
33Qg
ah
f
e
y
n
CONSONANTS
JO
e
P
f
I
en
k
3
d
V
6
->■;
b
a
kh
©
dh
^vo
ao
«
m
o
g
9
n
^
ai'i
■c
y initial
ex)
gh
o
P
c
ng&gn
S)
pb
3
k
jj
y meilial
©
ch
o
b
(^
kh
7
r .
ao
chh
00
bh
^
q
i?
V initial
'^
J
©
in
«
g
■»
V medial
Q)
jh
03
y
2«
gh
cxT
w
p
u
s
r
^
n
S>
S
?
t
CO
1
?
c (ch)
^
sh
s
th
o
w
>i
J
w
s
?
d
OO
s
?:)
dh
OO
h
8)0
sh
CXS
h
OO
n
t
8
33
t
PUNCTUATION.
an
•
OO
th
42
CANARESE (carnataca).
TUis language, belonging to the Drftvidian family, is spoken throughout the plateau of Mysore, in
some of the western districts of the Nizam territory, and in the district of Canara on the
Malabar coast.
©
a
5
g
^
nga
6
ta
cC6 y^
tp
a
SD
ai
■6
cha
6
tha
ra
s?
i (ee)
t:>
1
chha
6
da
^ la
^
i (ee)
to
6
83
ja
^
dha
5 va
d-
u (oo)
E
au
1
jha
^
na
g sa
^
tJ (60)'
ri
qC
na
2S
pa
(jM sha
■UOj
r
#
h
&)
t'a
ss
pha
^ za
ixys^
r'
r
ka
(^
t'ha
•0
ba
IS* ha
1'
1
10
kha
^
d'a
^
bha
^ ''
^
r
r(
ga
1
d'ha
:^
ma
CjS sha
<o
e
6»
1
gha
cm
n'a
LIGATURES
=# ki
<^5
5u
oTS
d£l
^
nna
55^ va
Jt) ku
r?
d'e
S
di
t^
pu
€) ^"^
4a^ k6
tl^s
d'o
<S?
di
^
pra
^- '^
^ ksha
§ ■
ti
*
de
s^Sjfi
bhu
/ -
rr-^ ga
1?
tl
\Qj
dri
^
mma
^? ^^'
^ gi
^
tu
i
n
0^
rk
^ vai
^ gu
1
te !
^
nk
•d
re
^ vvu
X ge
^J
tai
^
ni
C3-»
Ik
0^ sh&
K^ g^
$
ttu
?>?
nl
e>3-»
Id
SJ sht'a
^ gai
4
tte
5^
nu
S<i
16
P^ h6
^ »a
^
tra
i
ne
.5
va
43
GUJERATI OR GUZERATTEE.
This Alphabet is derived from the Sanscrit (Devauagari) characters, ftom which it principally differs
in the omisaion of the connecting lines. Gujerati is spoken in the province of Gujerat (Guzerat) , espe-
cially by the Parsee inhabitants, and is considered to be the mercantile language ofWestern India. In
modem times various Gujerati publications have appeared in Bombay.
-aiTlj
^
cha
Jl ta
\ bha
.^l^("
^
chha
84. tha
(HJ
^ i (ee)
oni)
ja
jha
<i da
U. dha
'H ma
C\ va
?fli^)
z
t'a
«i na
Cd la
^ ka
z
t'ha
H pa
2- ra
X '•
U\ kha
IS
d'a
V{ Pha
•)A sa
-artX e(ai)
51 ga
6
d'ha
A^ ba
;?l ga
«l gha
U.t
n'a
^ ha
LIGATURES
><lki
^ ku
Ufl khi
«3) khu
in kM
^ ^"
Ojl^ gu
^ ghu
^ghft
<(l chi
<l chu
^ chil
<q\ chhi
^ chhu
d chhft
«^ J"
J[ jhi
^jhA
^ ti
J ^'"
il t'hi
a t'hu
31 t'hft
^d'i
^d'u
^d'u
(^ d'hi
5 d'hu
^ d'hu
llrt n'i
^nft
IU> n'u
^flpi
Ilk "'6
-3>P"
jn ti
l^pft
^ tu
vaphi
^^-^
^ phu
art thi
^Ph6
S ti'"
&rtbi
^thA
^Jb„
^ di
%•''
^ du
-7)1 bhi
^d. .
^ bhu
6rt dhi
fA bhA
^ dhu
Od mi
a dhu
^ mu
^ni
'l^inA
1 1"
^ vi
^ vu
^vu
^(lli
^lu
H ri
^ si
^ su
Xfl ?i
^ ?"
^hi
;?» hu
44
TELUGU
one of the branches of the Dravidian stock, is spokfin along the eastern coast of India from the neigh-
bourhood of Pulicat to Chicacole. Inland it extends to the eastern boundary of the Maratha Coun-
try and Mysore, including within its range the ceded districts and Kurnool, the greater part of the
territories of the Nizam, the Hyderabad Country and a portion of the Nagpore Country. This language
is spoken by about 14 millions.
© a
^ i (ee)
■S% 1 (ee)
^ u (oo)
^ 6 (66)
"^UiO r
£3 6
<0 e
2o
to 6
: h
1^ ka
^J kha
^ ga
CUJ gha
?;nga
CS cha
u chha
Kb jha
3^ nya
6) t'a
S t'ha
2§ d'a
2§ d'ha
I
gQ n'a(hard)
6
ta
^
tha
25
da
^
4ha
^
na(soft)
<>
pa
'f
pha
<C>
ba
'^
bha
5SS
ma
crt'>
ya
^ ra
O la
^ va
cjj sa
o3i sha
•^ sa
gj-o ha
gf ia
&c3 sha
1 Pause
LIGATURES
^ ka
Sis' jha .
o3j^ ra^
S ti
^Si 1, li
^ ku
T" to
05J» jM
as mi
6 t!
ew lu
SSiy»Jii(i
2Sm mu
{5b tu
er™io
33 me
B te
M Ua
oJx. ksha
2f Sa
■
3) mo
So ttu
?^ Hi
7\ ge
3^iiu
tT* ge
^na
S^ mmu
\^ tra
oJ° va
;A gau
^ ni
CvCtj ya
cJi da
^ vu
I
|i ni
^ nu
dX) yi
^ ye
a di
ZSSdti
"Si ve
^ vva
^^''^
"S ne
^o^yo
"S de
^vvu
5^«h<i
^nna
TT* rk
S* do
<3 si
25^ ng4
^ po
Q ri
^ ddu
^sha
25« ng«
^ ppu
2\p.ritl
^ddhS,
^ sht'a
-a '^lii
9P hk
"Sj t'e
qj^ dha
■L^ chu
^ hu
2^ d'u
5 ri
^sa
^ Che
'Cf^bhfi
dai d'hu
Co ru
■^ ssa
45
BENGALI.
This Alphabet is based on the Sevanagari character. In some instances the circular shape has been
altered into an angular form, in others the form has been entirely changed. The Bengali language
is less mixed than the neighbouring idioms.
VOWELS.
CONSONANTS.
THE VOWELS
sounded after the con-
^a
^ Iri
■^ ka
\0 iia
?r dha
Ff la
aondntB take their po-
sition before, after
^t^
^ Iri
^ kha
^ ta
•T na
^ va
■*\ sha
3T sa
■^ sha
■5 ha
above and belowtheir
letters. They receive
^
^ e
5t ga
i tha
npa
in such cases the fol-
lowing forms.
^'
t4 ai
^ gha
!5 da
5j pha
Tl ^ follows its cons.
^ u
^ ti
13
§ au
v5 nga
■p tsha
•K tshha
F dha
1 ?a
^ ta
^ ba .
^ bha
3r ma
X 1 precedes » »
T i follows » »
^ ri
vSlSang
^ja
^ tha
51 ya
■^ khya
(K' U is subjoined
^iri
;5ISah
■^ jha
TT da
^ ra
*
c^ d „ ..
OBSER-V
ATIONS.
5 ri „
Tlic vowel - .sound of ihe short a is
./b r stands under a consonant and is
CC 6 precedes
b ai »
inherent in all consonants.
pronounced after it.
■
^ CbirdmJ subjoined to a consonant
^ over a consonant, represents its nasal
causes the a to drop. A con.sonant
moreover loses its a by being attached
to the following consonant.
sound.
q denotes the, word Ganesli.
J take the cons.
C 1 in the middle.
r*^ 11 take the cons.
»• I'' "in the middle.
0^ anff follows the
° eons.
J denotes y aflixed to a consonant.
(J denotes the name of God.
/ denotes r. It is placed at the top of
1 serves as a stop at
tlrc end of a
the lett
er, and sount
ed before it.
sentence
ah follows the cons.
BUGIS
is supposed to be the most ancient of the languages spoken in the island of Celebes. The same
Alphabet is u^ed in the Macassar language.
'^T a
^ ba
<t' ra
^ la
y^ ka
.- ma
'Z) cha
-^- wa
-V kha
•
ii pha
-D ja
"cs sa
■>} ga
^ ta
■sr a
CD ha
J» nga
^ da
Z£. chha
'-*■■' ya
^ pa
^ na
<= ra
Every consonant has an inherent vowel, with which it forms a separate .■iyllablc.
The following vowels vary in position:
t e before a letter.
'' i over a letter.
1 o after a letter,
. u under a letter.
' ung at the lop of a letter.
46
JAVANESE
ORDINARY LETTERS
INITIAL LETTERS
Ordln. Form
Fasangans
Sound
Ordin. Form Fasangans
Sound
(Uin
(K1
aoi
in-
(Kin
(10
(ism
(KJI
(a
oaii
(U
(Ul
(IK
(IIUI
dnm
(£J1
am
ICTl
^
a
. . -jin •
d
TO
(ki,'
^
(151,
o
-Jl
CJ
mill"
Tfri
cci'
03'
(b'
.ha
. nk .
.tya .
.ra .
M .
da
,ta .
.la
pa
nya
.ma
. ga
.ba
.ta
• nga
Pa-tyere', re
Ngd-letet, 16
■ ainn . .
. . (KV . .
. . i^ . .
tim, or OA
• ■ (Ui • .
■ (lOJl . .
^ ■ ■
(a'
. Na .
Tya.
Ka .
Ta .
, sa .
pa .
Nya.
Ga
UNCONNECTED VOWELS,
ga. CT a^ c, o
ADDITIONAL CONSONANTS.
The following four letters, with the sign a (Sastrosworo)
at the top, occur in words derived from the Arabic, as
there are no oonaonants in the Javanese Alphabet,
which fully express these sounds.
(KIT Cha stands for thf Arabic ^ L'hd
(ui fa
Ilk za
m gha
o f e
j ze
£ ghain
NUMERALS.
im ig ll^jl 6 Qj CL, (I'Ul (L\ aiui
4 5 6 7
9
47
VOWELS AND DIACRITICAL SIGNS,
called Sandangan.
Form
Name
Sound and power
O
Pepet
e
Q
TJIU or Wulu
i
J
Suku
u
1
Taling
e
• on 2 .
Ta,ling-Tarung
cJ
Paten or Pankon
(deprives a consonant of its vowel)
. S--
Sagnyan orWignyan
U (at the end of a syllable)
_'
Tyety'a
ng (at the end of a syllable)
/
Layar
r (at the end of a syllable)
•C-L
Tjkkrk
r (between a consonant and a succeed-
ing letter)
• -^ ■ •
Keret
re (after a consonant)
■(d
Pmkal
y (after a consonant)
PODOS OK PADAS.
Under this designation the Javanese writing contains the following signs :
I "^. II II Podo luhur. With this sign superiors begin
_^^^ their letters to inferiors.
I (1Z1 [) (] Podo madyo is used at the commencement
of letters by persons of eqnal rank.
Podo andap, with this superscription an in-
ferior addresses a superior.
Podo-bab stands at the beginning of a new
paragraph.
^ Podo-lingaoy the usual stop at the end of
a sentence or a detached word. In poetry
it marks the end of verses, which are
-^ written consecutively like prose. It is
doubled at the end of a section.
XOT^ nn
Purwo-podo stands at the be-
ginning of poems.
Madi/o - podOj at the beginning of a
song following another, when the
melody and the measure are changed.
i Podo andegging lyelatu or dirgo muraras occa-
sionally replaces the Podo~tingso\ mostly it
accompanies numerals, and isolates them from
the adjoining words.
Q Ulu munta. "When the vowel of a final syllable
is an ulu, this character takes a Tyety^a in the
centre.
^ Suku mendut. "When the vowel of the .last syl-
■^ lable is a Suku it takes this form.
Dirgo mure is the name of the sign placed over
the Tating or Taling- Tarung, when this vowel
occurs in the final syllable.
^ Podo watyan angl^genno. Under this name the
Tarung is employed as a sign of separation.
Piaelep ingstembarg gede, serves to divide poetry.
Wasono-podo at the end of
a poem.
1
48
LIGATURES.
The following ligatures consist of the (Vowel-) sings Suku, Tyohro, Keret and Pinhal combined with the
ordinary characters and Pamangans. The diacritical marks are also added.
^
5
onj
j
J
d
a
!3
"j
5
J
J
ci
9
"3
■■^
-J
(J
a.
%
g
5
5
5
'3
nrn
4
d
dl
dl
(Lmii
«5,
"3
3
■3
3
■3
•a
a
"3
nnnn
■J
o
-J
Q
5
dl
a
(inj)
!j
5
(UIJ
'31
d
q!5
a
"J
e>-
Cs
o/
cv
a/
Q. Q/
' 1
(IK
O The small pusangan Wo is placed below a letter standing' in the third row.
-'^ S fc-3 These small diacritical mark^ are placed under auxiliary letters which stand in the
third row.
I The short Lmjar is employed when there is no room for the large Laxjar.
^ This mark is placed under the letters Wo and Ago to form the vowels w and o.
OBSERVATIONS.
The JaTanese language has 20 letters which are
called Akmro, Sa&tfo or Tiarakan. They are written
from left to right, without being joined together.
By the many auxiliary letters, vowels and diacritical
signs, the numbers of characters is considerably
increased, . The l^asangana, employed in the Alpha-
bet, are in close connexion with the sign Paten,
which in fact they replace. When a consoi^9.iit,
occurs in the middle of a word, and is to be de-
prived of its vowel, a Paten must he employed. ■ To .
obviate a di^unction arising from the use of this
sign, the Paten is omitted, but the letter, which
follows the mute consonant, is changed in form or
in position or in both. The substituting sign is
then called Pasangan, The Pasanffans beiag mostly
placed under the common letters, while some vow-
els and diacritical signs figure above the letters,
■ the Javanese writing runs within three rows. The
position of a character in one row or ftn other is
indicated in this Alphabet by the addition of dots:
49
TIBETAN
sss
Form
Value
Form
Value
VOWELS.
The Tibetan language is read from left to
'I
k
5J
m
right and has five vowels. The vowel a is
inherent in the several consonants. When
confusion is apprehended from the absence
P
kh
4
ts
of a distinct a after the prefixes
Zr| ^ q 53
^
g
i
tsh
the sign Q^ is inserted to denote a. The
remaining vowels are written and named as
follows,
C
ng
s
f\ gigu i
xi "^ zhabs-kyu u
z
ch
-a
w
V drengbu e
"^ naro o
Cllll
J
0^
j (French)
z
The yigu drengbu and naro are placed
above their consonants, the zhabs-kyu below
them. When double, the zhabs-kyu is pro-
nounced uu or ow; double drengbu ay or
ie; doable naro 00 or ou. Gigu is often
formed thus (p
A is placed below the letters. Ph is chang-
ed by it into f ; ss into x. Under the
other letters it represents the vowel a;
nya
a
ha
according to others it denotes u.
o placed over th, a and h denotes with
t
ly
y
the first of these letters mce with the
other two m. According to others it
th
3;
r
signifies aug and ong.
2
ACCENTS.
^
d
QJ
I
\ guttural sign
P palatal
2- nasal »
^
n
sh
T sign of the singular number.
2if
PUNCTUATION.
P
s
fljOT is an introductory sign. Besides
^ — " 1 this figure other varieties are in use.
5J
ph
^
h
T Comma. Two such signs are equal to a
1 full stop. Four such strokes, with '•.■•'
between them, denote "the end".'
U
b
l?^
a
T is inserted between the syllables.
u o mark the stress o^ a word.
LIGATURES.
s sg
50
cc -»-3 "TS -»-s 'TIS I— t S
^
pW &C ^ t<
>^
rr fe?
J
o
< LP. IP IP'.l5>'r>u- n h t-0«0»Ck
<-<^"«^MMp^^^ h i/i^o»0'<
^^^ ^^>^^^^ ^S^£\
H
s
!2i
03
OS
J3 ee_^ «U^ =3^3^=3 aS,'*.'^ '2^'^
uuniasQ ui su
OS (U .rt o s ■■©
s
C -i><
fee
,=3 .a
Ph
<^-
1^
<r
^ <»- 1/
b ' b ^ t ->' I: -t "-t <4> 5^
-t > ^ ^ 'J' I ^ ^. ^ "(i^ ^ Cp ?p <
< H
51
fe d fl mo
H " 3 £■§
Wo" gS .
^ BO 5 h W
4 1 Of
NH to
5 ° °
g.. -.s
§5 Is
boo
W OS
* 'B 5 ^ 9 <«
ja "^ ft J h *»
fl S « -a .£p
SCO 73 CO u fi,
Q} ® B b « +*
J3-S B 3 £
EH eScfl ^ <3
sere khergen
00
C5
•=i 2 S ® — => ^ o -^ s 2
<^ (3 '(3 (^^ (^ '(^ (^^ C?^
c^(^4^ ^*-(^(^<^<?a
cp(b(3(^ ?^(?'C^(^c^cB»;t
<S(3'(3(r^^'^^^«^
OJ (13
■3
1 -a
"^
i;P lit
rt
ma
mi init.
a
U: U^
IF
_3
>
a
;z5
e.
43
CO O
rP 17 K 4<
^l7K-«:A-^cf,-i,
■>^1?1J^^^^
03
N
02
c8
s
+J
»
^
P
m
^
P3
M
SI
t"
n
CQ
^
!zi
GQ
a
i?
II
1= 'O
H
CO
g <
O
W
H
tn
n . •■— I .r-(
^ ^
Oj 45
P,^
52
MONGOLIAN
CONSONANTS
VOWELS
Initial
Medial
Pinal
Value
Initial
Medial
Mnal
Value
-T
T
/;
n
-TT
T
^7
a^
Q
O
^
b
T T
^7
e
5V
TT
. <i
ch Scotch
-TT
T
C
i
1*
TT
gh3ultural
-T^
■o
^
r
^4
k
-T^
•^
O
u
a
c
....
g
-rwr
■O
^
-;
m
1
-r^T
•«
^
u
-5
PUNCTUATION.
K
K
<^
r
T 1 This sign divides sentences.
^
^
^
J
■^ ^
t
d
•^« is u,
Hongi
>ed at the end of a peric
)d.
mbered by
-A
)lian hooks are not nu
the page but by the folio. It is usual to
head each folio by ^^ or some other
T
^
y
mark like this.
■?
L.
. .
z, dz
3
-
ts or ch
OBSERVATIONS.
Like the Mantshn the Mongolian cha-
A
A
^ i
s
racters are written in perpendicular lines
from left to right. The Alphabet consists
A
/^
sh
of seyen vowels, together with diphthongs
derived from them, and of seventeen con-
^3
^3
w
sonants which vary in form according to
their po
sition at thi
5 beginning.
the middle.
effect exercised upon them by certain orthographical rules. — The consonants are
not regarded as isolated sounds , but are always joined to vowels with which they form
simple syllables. An exception is made to this rule when a consonant occurs as the final
of a syllable or a word. But even such final consonants may be attended by a vowel. A
variation of the Mongolian characters is known under the name of Galifc.
53
ARMENIAN
Form
Name
Value
Num.-
power
Form
Name
Value
Num.-
power.
v. •"
Jpe
a
1
11^
iT
mien
m
200
'V t
pien
kim
P
k ck
2
3
(5
Hi
J
■h
he or ye
noo
h or y (in
toy)
n
300
400
'h t
tah
t (soft)
4
r.
L
shah
sh
500
1? fr
yetch
y (cone.)
5
n
n
wo
■WO(inword)
orOCinmove]
600
«, 1.
zah
z
6
2
L
tchah
tch
700
1; ^
e
e (in met)
7
"I
•H.
be
b
800
(I /L
yet
e (in paper)
8
,p.
t
tche
Ch (soft
900
P- ^
twoh
t (hard)
9
n-
IL
rah
r (hard)
1000
d' -^
zhe
J fPrenoli)
10
11
U
se
S
2000
h ^
inni
i (in ill)
20
^1,
4
viev
V
3000
1, L
lune
1
30
vS
in
dune
d
4000
1„ ^
khe
Ch(German)
40
p
P
re
r (soft)
5000
\r *
dzah
Z (Italian)
50
8
3
tzvoh
tZ (hard)
6000
ii 4
ghien
g (hard)
60
V
L
une
U (in due)
7000
-; ^
kwoh
h
70
a>
i
pure
P
8000
a ^
tzah
tZ (BOft)
80
^K
•e
U
k
9000
'K t
ghahd
yfBomaic)
90
()
O
10000
7\' ^
j^
J
100
*
*
pha
f
20000
% hn
Ii- yev
pi_ Is
■^ lu
LIGATUKES.
lit me
ifli mg
mi
mye
3£ mn
^ vn
acute
' grave
' circumflex
rough breathing
''' soft breathing
ACCENTS AND PUNCTUATIONS.
' apostrophe
, comma
: colon or semicolon
. full stop
-■ hyphen
'' sign of length
°^ sign of brevity and abbrevi-
ation
"" sign of abbreviation, it also con-
vci'ts a letter into a numeral.
54
GEORGIAN.
The Georgian language is written in two Alphabets. The ancient character, used in the
Bible and ecclesiastical works, is called KhutSuri (i. e . sacerdotal). The character
Mkhedruli (or rather MkhedruU kheli i.e. Soldier's hand) is used in ordinary writing
and printing.
KHUTSUEI
MKHEDRDLI
Form
Value
Form
Value
S
o
Name
Value
s
o
Name
Value
K^
a
hh
s
b
an
a
n)
un
00
^3
b
^E
t
i
ban
b
i
w
^^
g
Oii«(
00
6
gan
g
?
vg
ve
'S^
d
^n
V
«?
don
d
«8
phar
ph
^Ini
e
T^
p'h
a
en
6
5
khan
kh
1-y
w
+ -{.
k
i
win
V
"^
ghan
gh (c Arab.)
Vfi
z
Qti
gh (Arab.)
%
zen
z
()
qar
qCJjArab.)
n
h, e (short)
H'(
q
6
he
e
"i
shin
sh
Chm
th
3^
sh
<n
than
th
R
chin
ch
-n
i
ch
o
in
i
(5
tzan
tz
h\
k'
ts
6
kan
k
a
dza
dz
»^bin
a^
las
1
?
thzil
thz
1
iA
ds
a
&i3
ID
Rpi
thz
man
nar
m
n
b
jar
khan
j
kh (rough)
KB
n
kh
bo
am
i (short)
khh
ie
on
i (short)
3
khhar
jan
rougb)
j
5»^
J
s
par
p
hae
h
'(Jii
p
T)in
h (mute)
a
zhan
j (French)
a;
hoe
hoi
Mij
j (French)
cB.fi
ho
«s
rae
r
%
fa
f
chib
r
Ss
ch
6
san
tar
s
t
2
skorl e
- Hyphen
:• End of a Period
PUNCTUATION.
: Full stop
. Semicolon
J Comma,
55
GREEK
Form
Name
Value
A a
Alpha
a
B p
Beta
b
r T
Gamma
g
A 8
Delta
d
E e
Epsllon
e short
z ?
Zeta
z
H 7]
Eta
e long
^ 6
Theta
th
I I
Iota
i
K )c
Kappa
k
A X
Lambda
1
M It
My
m
N V
Ny
n
s §
Xi
X
Omikron
short
n %
Pi
P
P p
Rho
r
2 a?
Sigma
s
T T
Tau
t
Y u
Ypsilon
u
$ cp.
Phi
f ph
xx
Chi
ch
^ ij;
Psi
ps
a o
Omega
long
OBSERVATIONS.
Y before y and ihe other palatals (x i ?)
is pronounced like n, as iyyvi (eng-gus) .
t is a mere vowel and never represents
the consonantal sound of y, as 'liailA
(I-onia). In foreign words the de-
ficient consonant was replaced by t, as
louXto? (Julius).
a is an initial and medial s. The final is
marked by the sign of f. The latter is,
in some modern editions, used at the
end of medial syllables.
I before i, followed by a vowel, retains its
proper sound of ti, and is not pronounced
like shi, as TaXarta (Ga-la-ti-a).
■Accents and Punctuation
SPIRITS OR BREATHINGS.
Every Greek word, commencing with a vowel, has over this
initial either
(') SplritUS lenis, the soft breathing,
or (') spiritus asper, the rough breathing.
The former is aspirated before a vowel and equal to our h.
The spiritus lenis is placed over an unaspirated initial vowel.
When a word commences with a diphthong (at, u, Ot, ut, au,
eu, i]M, ou, uu), the breathings as well as the accents are placed
over the second vowel, as auTO;, olo;, eixuv. p always has the
rough breathing at the beginning of a word. In the middle of
a word, when this letter is doubled, the first p has the soft and
the second the rough breathing, as ^^.
ACCENTS,
acute or sharp]sound.
grave or heavy sound,
circumflex or long and trailing sound.
Accents , combined with either of the breathings or with the
diieresis, are marked in the following manner.
PUNCTUATION and OTHER MARKS.
The point and comma are used in Greek as in English. There
is no semicolon. The Colon is denoted by a dot over the
line ('). The note of interrogation is (;). In some modern editons
the note of exclamation (!) has been introduced.
The Comma is also used to distinguish two words of equal
spelling. As o,Tt, Td,T£, diflfering form the particles on, tote.
This sign is termed Diastole or Hyper- diastole.
The following signs are used in connexion with letters and
syllables. The Apostrophe {'), the Diaeresis ("), over a vowel
separated from the sound of a preceding vowel, and the Coronis '
in contracted words to denote a Crasis as TouvavxCov for to
^vavTiov.
Iota subscriptum is the Iota under the vowels a, Xj, a, and
indicates the etymology of the words. Formerly this i was pro-
nounced, and had its place by the side of the vowel. This lateral
Iota is still used in words spelled with capital letters, as THI
SOa>IA (for T^ ooipia) "AtfiT); (aSv)?).
NUMERALS.
The Greeks employed the letters of the alphabet to denote the
numerals, but as these characters were not sufQcient for this pur-
pose, the 5 (Bau, Vau) or / (Digamma) was inserted after
the e, the U (KoJcica) after it, and <Tt5 (SanTCf) after to. The
letters employed as numerals are distinguished by a top line slop-
ing, to the right as a' "1, p' 2, s' 6, t' 10, la' 11, x' 20, xs' 26,
p' 100, a' 200, uXp' 232 etc. The thousands recommence with
a, and have a stroke below on the left, as ^a 1000, ^oXp' 2232.
56
GEEEK LIGATURES AifD ABBREVIATIONS.
These contractions are peculiar to old editions of -Greek works. They are no longer used in
modern typography.
>?
Cf4
oUi
ami
cum^
G
f
ya
J=
-ye
yi
%
yr,
yt
^
<yv
y>
ryU
yd)
J
m
av
a%
It
av
dno
«p
ag
av
avrov
avrvj
ft
7
ya
ya()
rr
rr
ys
ysi
ysX
yeU.
ytv
yf()
rv
yi^
yiverai
yv
yo
y(j
yv
yco
f^^
dsv
(Jfl
Jior
eivai
el
6/K,
s
V^ ell
e->^ elatTOV
cv ev
£71 EV
(J^ dif
SI
£1
*v
STll
^
snc
3?i
iOTl
d6
£V
Iw
TjV
a
&
5«
&a
9h
&£
w
&Sl
%
&ri
^
&i
%
d-o
>
&v
%
&a}
nSH
xai
^1 xai
^ y.al
Vl yMTCt
VJ^ yMTa
J^ x£(pdkaiov
jLiaTwy
fJL£V
jLiav
fi£voe
14
■37^
nluu
ins
7!t
olov
og
TtV
7m
e^
e/
es
C c
en
ari
aluu
076
av
asr
OS
?K
<^
?V
Of
ovd£
oiix
ovxov
n
naqa
nti
nE(f
tieqI
TITJV
Tin
TIQ
TIQO
TIT
TIV
Jim
Qa
(}l
QO
a
oa
oavra
aa
on
arj
arjv
a&
a&ai
ox
01
ox
GO
00
on
onav
oa
or
ora
OT£
Orel
OT.rj
51
5^
?f
'^
<jW
CV
aw
1
I
T
Wi
Ti
w
. T
%
r
a'
w
T
TV
S
■TO
T
f^
■^
an
oro
ffrp
arti
or CO
av
oco
x
ra
rai
raig
raiira
T£l
TTIV
rriv
rrjg
Tl
TO
TO
TO
TOV
TOV
TOV
TOil
TOV
T()0
TT.
TV
TOi
t
T(0
L
TMV
T(UV
V
VI
vv
vn
VTIO
yav
X(>
57
ROMAIC OR MODERN GREEK.
The Alphabet consists of the following 24 letters, which are the same as in ancient Greek.
Aa, Bp, ry, A5, Es, ZS, Ht], 0^, It, Kx, AX,-M(jl, Nv, S, k,
O 0, n TT, P p, 2 (J (final ?), T t, Y u, $ 9, X x, ^ 4^, £2 «•
The Towels are a, &, r], i, u, u and lu.
PRONUNCIATION.
A a (Alpha) short or long as in papa.
B P (Vita) is represented by 6A or o. In sound it
differs slightly from the English v , the mouth
being somewhat rounded in the articulation of
the Bomaic letter.
r Y (Gamma) is an aspirate of g in go. In yy the
nret gamma becomes naaal; oeyysXq?, for instance,
is pronounced aiig-ye-los. It receives the same
sound before the palatals x ^ and y^ as ocva-piT]
(a-nang-ki). Before e i and u it is like y in yes.
To produce the sound of our g in yrey^ the Mo-
dem Greeks use I'x as I'xpiixctp. ((xra/tam).
A 5 (Delta) is aspirated as ^A in ^/te.
£ e (Epsilon) as the e in pet.
Z C (Zita) like 3. Ziot) (zo-I).
e a C2%;7a; llke (A in thick.
I t Ciota^ like i in machine when t is placed under
the vowels as in a iq ip or by the side of capital
vowels (Ai, Hi, il\) it is not sounded and only
lengthens the principal vowel. This i is known
as the Iota subacriptum.
K X (Kappa) like our k. It is softened after the
nasal 7 hence ctYxXid is pronounced anglid.
A X (Lamvda) like I in long. Before i it has the
sound of Hi in William.
M |JL (Mi) like m. Placed before*:, these two letters
acquire the sound of b (jLTtnpoOtt (barooH). This
combination of pm takes the sound of b in words
received from foreign languages, but in com-
pound Bomaic words, each letter retains its ori-
ginal pronunciation. Example £[jL7k'Jp£>j(i.ct (em-
pee -rev -ma).
N V (Ni) is n. Placed before t, the two letters
coalesce in the sound of d, which is articulated
somewhat harder than the 5. For example
UTi('/Ctut (diwani). vtC hAve conjointly the sound
of j; as v-^c((jLi (Jami), When the letters v and -
form part of two syllables in a compound word,
they retain their natural sound of nt. For example
evTifjLOc (en-timos). Before the vowel i the v is
articulated like ni in opinion as vititiu (n^ipto).
S 5 (^i) is X.
(Omikron) like in dot.
n Tz (Pi) like p.
P p (Ho) like r in rod. If doublad, ithasasharper
sound.
1 a (Sigma) like « in so. Before B, F, A, Z, A,
M, N, V and in the proclitics (such as Toyi; to?)
before the same consonants, the Sigma is sounded
hke z, as ^iJLupvTj (Zmimi).
T T (Taph) is t. tC sounds sometimes like ts, but
generally like c/j, as TCsXeTri)? (chelepis). Words
with tC are mostly of foreign origin.
T 'J (Ypsilon) lik y in Egypt. For example TpuffXiov
(trielion).
<b o (Phi) like / or ph.
X y (Khi or Chi) like the German or Scotch ch.
Before the vowels a, 0, Uj it is more harsh than
before e and i.
W '^ (Psi) like ps in ^ipsy.
Q (u (Omega) is the long 0.
The following are diphthongs ai, ao, st, eu, t/j,
01 and ou (a). Ai sounds like c in ethics. The y
of ecu, Eu, ir)u sounds like f:t before a vowel, or
the soft and liquid letters p, y» ^» '^j ^> [^» '^j P- —
01 is like ee and o'j like 00 in pooeZ.
The diaeresis over the second vowel of di-
phthongs restores to each vowel its original sound;
at, Qiu, si, sO are pronounced separately a-i, cc-u &c.
, BREATHINGS and PUNCTUATION.
The Bomaic or Modern Greek admits like the
ancient language two marks over initial vowels,
namely the Smooth breathing Spirilus lenis ('), which
is not noticed in reading, and the Rough breathing
Spiritus asper ('), which in classical Greek takes
the sound of our A, but is not audible in the
modern language. The p, as an initial, is invari-
ably marked with the rough breathing. In double
p the first has the smooth and the second the rough ,
breathing.
The names of the stops are, TEXetct, full stop (■),
[AitJOffTiY(Ji.'n colon ( * ) , uTioaTiYp^T) or {)7co8i«ffToX7)
comma (,) and UTipi^Iov spuiTi^asiu^ sign of inter-
rogation (;)• The mark of exclamation (I) is
rarely used.
To these signs must be added the apostrophe and
the diaeresis. The former (') denotes the elision
of one or more vowels. E. g. diC Epieva, d©' Tjfi«c
instead of aico etc. This elision of vowels' occurs
even before consonants as 'an' ih instead of ccjCo to.
In xav (instead of xal ccv) and xdvdvcci; (instead
of kal av %y(i<i) etc , the mark (') denotes the co-
alescence of vowels (xpdaiO and is called coronis.
This mark is often used in contractions as [jlo-)xo-
'|iav -0 y_i^i-
The diaeresis prevents the union of diphthongs.
E. g. \j.Tzrjictyx^riz sounds bo-ij-an-jis.
Another mark of separation is the diastole (,),
which resembles the comma, and is used to dis-
tinguish the pronoun ?, ti and the adverb to, it
Irom the conjunction Sti and the adverb t6~s.
. ACCENTS.
The tone is indicated by three accents , namely
the circumfiex (icspitJiutoftivT)) ' or long accent, the
acute (oYsia)' ox sharp accent, and the grave (popsTa)'
or heavy accent in final syllables. Some mono-
syllabic words, being unaccented, are called atona.
The circumflex can only be placed on the ultimate
and penultimate syllable. When the vowel of a
final syllable is long, tbe penultimate vowel can-
not take the circumflex. A. word is termed peri-
spom.enon, when it has the circumflex on its last
syllable , or if it is a monosyllable and is marked
with this accent. When the circumflex occurs
over the penult, the word is properispomenon.
The Acute takes its place in the penultimate and
ante -penultimate syllable. Also on the final syl-
lable at the end of a period, or when an enclitic
follows (i, e, a word like uoO, [loi, (jle which throws
its accent on the antecedent).
When the final syllable is long, the acute can-
not revert to the ante -penultimate.
When the acute occurs in a monosyllable or in
a final syllable, the word is called oxytononj the
penultimate, thus accented, is cailed paroxytonon;
and the ante -penultimate with the acute is pro-
paroxytonon.
58
OLD-SLAVONIC (CYRILLIC).
Based on the most ancient MSS, and cut under the direction of the I. B. Aulic Councillor
Dr. Paul Jos. Schafahik »t the type- factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohme in Prague.
Form
Name
Value
Form
Name
Value
\ a
Az
a
<P ^
Pert
f, ph
E E
Buky
b
X X
Cher
kh
B B
Vedi
V
(D fi)
6
6
r r
Glagol'
§
(b 3
Ot
ot
A A
Dobro
d
M '1
Ci
is
6 e
Est'
e
Y Y
Cerv'
c
iR m
Zivete
z
111 Ul
Sa
s
S s
Zelo
z
lll Ifl
Sta
it, sc
? ?
Zemlja
z
% %
Jer
—
H H
Ize
TA 11
Jery
y
1 1
1
hi u
Jery
y
1 1
1
i, y
b b
Jerek
—
K 1!
Kako
k
■E *
Jet
e
A A
Ljudi
1
K) 10
Ju
yu
M M
Myslite
ni
1^ t\
Ja
ya
N N
Nas
11
le 16
Je
•ye
On
A A
• F,s
?
n n
Pokoj
P
;)) iK
4s
^ •
P p
Rci (Reci)
r
llil Jft
J§s
ye
C c
Slovo
s
l?it IS
J^a
y^
T T
Tverdo
t
? 5
Ksi
X
1i t^
Terv'
t'
T *
Psi
ps
0\ oy
Uk
u
e «
Thita
th
S 8
Uk
u
V V
Izica
y
•B
a 3 4 5
8 = S=6
NUMERICAL LETTERS,
etc. •»!• .Bl> •ri- .^|. .eh etc. -m- 'KB- 'Kf-' -Kji,- -KC'
H 12 n U 15 21 22 23 24 25
9 = Y=9() f= 1000, E.g. y3T98.= 6396.
etc.
ABBREVIATIONS (In Slavonic Titly).
- Titia (simple). * Glagol' -Titla.
'^ Dobro -Titla. . «^ Slovo- Titla.
Onecek.
Pajerek.
1) The power and pronunciation of the accented
(Boman) characters are sufficiently explained in
the Polish and Czechian Alphabets.
2) The alphabetical names have been rectified
and, as regards the nasals , completed according
to approved ancient authorities.
3) The characters are designed to be printed
without the abbreviations, which as relics of the
NOTES.
middle ages must be restricted to ecclesiastical
works. Here they are solely introduced as histori-
cal forms. The "Pajerek" is a Jer or Jerelc placed
over a letter.
4) As in ancient MSS, the numbers are indicated
by the insertio;i of the letters between two dots.
The "Titla" formerly used have thus become un-
necessary.
59
GLAGOLITIC.
According to ancient JISS (sec. XI — XII) designed by Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarjk, cut at the type-factory
of Gottlieb Haase Sohke in Prague.
Form
Name
Value
Num:
value
Form
Name
Value
Num:
value
Cyrill.
Latin
Cyrill.
Latin
+ +
Az
A
a
1
m »
Uk
ov
U
400
Buky
V6di
G
R
b
V
2
3
* *
Pert
*
f,ph
500
% %
Glagol'
r
S
4
h h
Cher
It
ch
600
Sh A
Dobro
A
d
5
o
6
(0
(I
700
3 3
Est
6
e
6
W w
Sta
M'
St
800
cb d6
2iiv6te
m
i
7
"V -v
Ci
'1
c
900
« «
Z61o
s
z
8
tf «
Cerv'
Y
6
1000
Oo A,
Zemtja
?
z
9
m ui
§a
UI
s
S 8
lie
I
II
i
i
10
20
« -8
Jer
I
e
At M
D6rv' 0.
Jot
Kako
K
4J
k
30
40
■as AT
a <,|
Jery
Jerok
•u
h
y
e_
i
A A
Ljudi
^
1
50
A A
Jef
t
6,ja
X ?5 j
Myslite
M
in
60
IP p>
Ju
Es
10
ju
e
■p f
Nas
H
n
70
3€ 3€
As
a,
■q
3 3
On
80
3€ 36
Jes
a
j?
r p
Pokqj
n
P
90
%€ '^
Jqs
a,
j^
b b
R'ci
P
r
100
■e- -e-
Thita
«
th
8 8
Slovo
c
s
200
§. s.
Izica
V
y
00 TO
Tvr'do
. T
t
300
NOTES.
1. The letter Jery is a compound of Jer and lee.
2. The letters w — m and « — i are duplicate forms, w and .s are peculiar
to Bulgarian MSS; M and i are Croatian characters. » on the other
hand is not a real duplicate form of (j> , it being identical with 4. , which
is used instead of (|>.
3. These characters are arranged to be printed without abbreviations, which
are confined to liturgical books.
4. The numerical power, of the letters is indicated by dots on both sides, as
•+• -ti- etc.
5. Further information on the value and the pronunciation of the accented
letters is given in the Czechian and Polish Alphabets.
8*
60
CROATO ■ GLAGOLITIC.
Designed from Croatian MSS and printed works by Dr. Paul Jos. Schafaieik; cut at the type-
factory of GOTTMEB Haasb Sohhe in Prague.
Form
Name
Value
Num:
value
iTi
ih
A:«
{^
tii
Buky
OD
OD
Vedi
7b
%
Glagol'
Db
Db
Dobro
3
3
Est'
[m
dti
Zivete
£
s
Zelo
Va
eo
Zemlja
"if
V
Ize
8
8
I
hf
np
Derv' 1
c. Jot )
"I
I
Kako
A
m
Ljudi
SR
m
Myslito
F
p
Nas
a
a
Oo
p
[a
Pokoj
B
b
R'ci
Q
Q
Slovo
on
an
Tvr'do
a
H
V
a
o
d
e
z
z
z
i
i
dy, y
m
n
P
r
s
t
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
Form
m m
tp (D
la Ja
O Q
4J ft
m ui
■^8 °88
•B -8
T T
A m
JS\ Si
•e c
Name
Value
Uk
u
Pert
f,ph
Chei-
kh (ch)
Sta
St
Ci
is
Cerv'
c
Sa
s
> Jer
e
[ Jery
y
1 Jerek
e
i
Jet'
e, ya
Ju
yu
F,s
?
As
n
Jqs
y?
Jqs
y^
Thita
th
Izica
y
Num:
value
400
500
600
700
800
900
lOOO
NOTES.
1. These characters are designed to be printed without the abbreviations, pecu-
liar to liturgical works.
2. The numerical letters are distinguished by dots on both sides , as .ifi. .c etc.
3. The punctuation is the same as in other languages.
4. The letters €, se, 38 and ©e, the^orms =« and «, together with the combina-
tions =sg and =BT, are only found in Bulgarian MSS. The ligature s instead
of 33 only occurs in Croatian MSS.
5. The value and pronunciation of the accented Roman characters may be as-
certained by referring to the Czechian and Polish Alphabets.
61
RUSSIAN
Form
Straight
Italic
Name
Value
Observations
A
B
B
r
E e
at 5K
3 3
mti H
I i i
K K
J A
m M
H H
n n
p p
C c
T T m
y y
O <!,
X X
n u
q >j
m m
m m
T> T.
H H
b h
-B t
3 3
K) H)
a a
e e
V V
A
a
E
6
B
6
r
«
E
e
M
3
3
M M uu
I i
', i
K
K
J
Jb
M
Jn
H
H
n
n
p
c
P
c
T
T m
y
X
y
x
U
n
lUw
Ti 3
bl bl
b b
^IhJb
3 a
10 m
a H
e 9
V ir
As
Buki
Vyedi
Glagol
Dobro
Yest
Zhivete
Zemla
Izhe
I
Kako
Liudi
Muislete
Nash
On
Pokoi
Rtsui
Slovo
Tverdo
U
Fert
Kherr
Tsui
Tsherv
Sha
Shtsha
YeiT
Yerui
Yer
Yat
E
Yu
Ya
Fita
Izhitza
a
b
V ff
g gh
d
e ye yo
zh sh
z
i
i
k ck
1
in
n
a
P
r
s
t
u
ph f
kh(chinGer.)
ts
ch
sh
shch
hard suffix
Ui i thick
soft suffix
ye 6yo
e
yOO Fr.
ya ye
f
y V
The Russian Alphabet con-
sists of 35 letters. Ecclesiasti-
cal and Old -Russian works,
being written in the ancient
Slavonic character, contain the
following additional letters ,
« (Selo) s, 8 or 8 (Ik) u ,
(o (Ot) 0, a, (Yuss) K>, Cj (0) o,
5 (Ksi) X, ■^ (Psi) ps.
In ecclesiastical books these
letters serve as numerals, and
are arranged as in Greek. The
sign '—I is placed over numeri-
cal letters.
a has the sounds of iar and 6a^.
6 like b. Before the strong
coQsonants and as a final letter
it sounds like p.
B 1) At the beginning of a syl-
lable and before .i h p like v. 2)
As a final, and before a hard
consonant, like_^.
r 1) As an initial and medial
letter nearly like g in give, but
with a hard Hibernian aspira-
tion. 2) As a final, or before sh,
like k. 3) In ecclesiastical pro-
nunciation it is aspirated like
h. In some words, especially
foreign, it sounds like ch in the
Scotch loch. 4) The adjectival
and pronominal ending to is
commonly pronounced wo, and
in inferior style it is even spelled
so.
A as our d.
e 1) At the beginning of syl-
lables like yai. 2) At the end of
syllables like e in met, with a
feeble y before it. After sibi-
lants this y is not heard. 3)
When accented it sounds like
yeo in yeoman, and after Hc H m
m n like in go. This rule is
applied a) before a consonant
followed by the vowels a, o, y,
i£l, i ; 6) at the end of a word ;
c) in the instrumental case eio
or eft of nouns fem. sing ; d) be-
fore r, K, X, and the sibilants
at, m. e) in the present tense.
In improved spelling the sound
of I/O ovo is indicated by e. This
e also denotes the French sound
of eu.
TK hkej in the French word
jour.
H and i sound alike.
62
RUSSIAN
Observations
CURRENT HAND
t^ jt oc Ob A
&^
.1 final, attended by i,
sounds very hard.
accented, sounds like
the oinjTo. When unaccented
it is pronounced like the a in
far.
X is a stronger guttural
than ch in the Scotch loctt.
II like tz in Fritz.
. 7 ordinarily like ch in
church. In 4to (what) and be-
fore n it takes the sound oish.
m cousists of the sounds
oish-ch. A notion of its pro-
nunciation may be formed
by a connected articulation
of the letters sh-chi in the
words English children.
% after a final consonant
produces a hard and ringing
sound.
b is placed at the end of
words where it softens the
preceding consonant , and
adds to it the sound of ye,
such as is heard in theFrench
pronunciation of Charle-
magne. In the middle of a
word, mostly between two
consonants, it is uttered with
a slight sound of ee.
Bi is identical with the
Polish ^, and somewhat like
the English we, when rapidly
articulated.
•b as an initial like yai.
The y of this diphthong is
also sounded in the middle
of a syllable after n, but is
scarcely audible after the
other consonants.
3 This reversed e is the initial of words
commencing with the sound ai. It occurs in
foreign words in which, it replaces oe.
m sounds like etc. In foreign words it is
similar to the French «.
H when accented, sounds like ja in yard. In
unaccented initial syllables it sounds ye. After
consonants it is pronounced like e in met. As
a final letter it takes the sound of ya in yard.
e represents the same Greek letter but is
pronounced like F. In modern derivations
from the Greek it is replaced by F.
Y only occurs in Greek words. At the be-
ginning of a word or after a consonant it
sounds like ee, and after a vowel like v.
The letters h, e, x,f, do not occur in the
Russian alphabet. They are represented as
follows: 1) h is replaced by r, as in TaMSypri.
/fojniMz-jr, or it is omitted altogether, especially
n e
J' t
e e
T
A ^ £^^
S &
da iMy r
3 3 a
.% 7i
J ^
■Jb Tb
ZJL fJL Ji tA,
^ j(k %M
cr
J, ^
c r
aic
/
M U
t I
n
n H,
o o
31 n
.ft'
e c
B B
r r
4 4
E e
% H{
3 3
H H
I i
K «
1 i
M M
H H
n n
P P
C c
X X
m in
m III
M a
^ 6
3
WW
9L Jlo
m m 1 T
y 1/ Y y
X X \ -a.
4 "r
m tu
m Of
mm
mm
fi( «^ bl
6 6
n a
10 /o
h b
a 9
K)k)
V
a ji a h
e e e e
f 1) y \
in Latin words as AHHHCaa'B, Hannibal. 2) c
before e, i, y, sounding like the German z or
tz, is expressed by b, as I^HqepoB'B, and before
a, u, uhy k, as Ko.l.ieria. 3) x is expressed
by KC, as AjeKClH (Alexius). 4) / and the
German v are changed into <&, as j'pnApiix'B
Frederick.
DIPHTHONGS.
Proper diphthongs are only formed .by the h follow-
ing a vowel; This letter receives in such a casS a
characteristic sign at the top (fi). The diphthongs are
aii efi in oft yfi utft tH aft loft an.
ACCENTS.
The stress of an accented vowel is indicated by the
acute (') and the grave (\). The former denotes the
raising, the latter the depression of the tone. The
accents are only then marked iu writing, when cor-
responding forms are to be distinguished from one
another. They are placed over the following vowels
aenioyu'BaAv.
63
. SERVIAN.
(Modern form, cut by r. Bosch in Iieipzio.)
This language is divided into the dialects of the Her-
zegovina, of Bessava and Syimia. The Servians use the
Slavonic (Cyrillic), the Croats and Wends the Boman
characters.
ILLYHIAN.
Nr. I represents the "organic" orthography now
used in Boman-Catholic publications ; Nrs. H and
in are to some extent current in Slavonia,
Croatia and Dalmatia.
Cyrillic
A a
B 6
B B
r r
A A
^ %
E e
m m
3 3
H H
I i
J J
K K
A A
Ji> Jb
M M
H H
H> H.
n n
P p
C c
T T
b h
y y
X X
n n
m m
mm
bl bi
b b
% u
e e
K) H)
H a
e e
Latin
A a
B b
V V
G g
D d
e
z
z
i
i
J
k
1
E
Z
Z
I
I
J
K
L
Lj Ij
M m
N n
Nj nj
P p
R r
S s
T t
G c
U u
F
H
C
C
s
S6 1(5
Pronunciation
1 i
Je je e ie
Je je
Ju ju
Ja ,ja
Dz dz
Th th
d
dy, Hungarian gy
e
j in French
Z
i
y
y
k
1
ly, it»i- gl. gli
m
n
n Ital. andFr. ng
p
r
s
I
"ly. 'j
u
f
h
Is
ch
sh
shell
hardening suffix
ee, French U
softening suffix
ye, ie
ye
yfl
ya
j
th
a
b
c
c
c
d
dj
e
e
f
g
gj
h
i
j
k
I
lj
m
n
nj
P
r
s
s
I
lj
u
V
z
z
dz
11.
a
b
c
ch
CS
d
dj
e
e i
f
g
gj
h
i
j
k
1
lj
m
n
nj
P
r
s
sh
t
ch
u
V
z
X
dx ex
ni.
Pronunciation
I
a
b
cz
cb
es
d
dy
e
e
f
g
gy
h
i
j
k
I
ly
m
n
ny
P
r
ss sz
sc
t
t\
u
V
z
s
ds
The Vowels a, o, u, i,
e sound as in German or
Italian.
e as a medial, follows
all the consonants except
gutturals. It rarely is a
final letter and never an
initial. Its general sound
is lilie ye (in yes). In
the dialect of the Herze-
govina it has the same
pronunciation when not
lengthened, otherwise it
sounds like ee combined
with ye, as is heard in
see yet. Before i, like y
in ye. In the Syrmian
dialect it varies between
ayandee. In theRessava
dialect it almost invariably
sounds like ay (in nay).
This e is now often spelled
ie.
c is like ts in lots.
c and tj almost like ts.
The difference between
these spellings is, that c
can be used indiscHminate-
ly, and tj only in derived
words.
c like j in jar.
dj and gj are nearly
like j in jar.
lj like Hi in William.
nj like ni in opinion.
s like sh.
z like s in measure.
dz like j in jar.
r has the power both of a consonant and a vowel.
As a consonant it sounds as in other languages. As
a vowel it forms a separate syllable and is pronounced
with a very slight sound of e. The orthography of
this syllable varies. Some spell it er, the Ragusans
ar. Others omit a and e and simply write r, others
again write r.
Accents used in Servian : acute (>); sign of
Icnglh (') ; w or '^ sign of brevity.
64
WALLACHIAN
Form
Name
A a
As
B B
Buke
B B
Vide
r r
Glagol
A A
Dobro
e e
Yest
m SR
Shivete
S B
Zalo
3 3
Zemlia
H H B
I
I I I i
Ishe
K K
Kako
A A
Liude
M m
Meslite
H H
Nash
On
n n
Pokoi
Pp
Etse
c
Slovo
T T
Tverdo
8 »
Uk
Oy <9
Uniku
$ $
Fert
X X
Khir
ca (0
Hu
Tsi
'I 'I
Cher
m m
Sha
ttllffi
Shta
1. 1.
Yor
B t
Yaty
£ iifi
Yiis
H) H)
Yu
m H
Yako
A A
la
•e- «
Ftita
ft
Psi
Hi
Xi
r V
Ishitza
^^
tin
V ?
Je
Value
a
b
V
g
d
ye e long
zh
Nr. 6
z
i
y
k
1
m
n
P
r
s
t
u
u
f ph
kh h
long
ts
ch
sh
sht
e shoit
ea
e (uilh)
yu
ya
ya
ft th
ps
X
V i *
flngiufieriD,
J
Besides the Al-
phabet on the left
there are two va-
rieties of charac-
ters.
h (pronounced Eer)
is appended to a
consonant at the
end of a word
without being
sounded. In mo-
dern printing it is
omitted.
Bl (Tory) is only
employed in words
of Slavonic origin.
V Ishitza, occurs
in words derived
from the Greek.
After vowels its
sound is 0, after
consonants,? (as
in Bit).
SHORT ACCENTS.
o is placed over
an initial vowel
and the diph-
thong 10.
o stands over a
medial and final
H and over a
final H).
LONG ACCENTS.
" over initial vow-
els and over lo*
' over medial vow-
els.
over the medial
^ and the final
a, «, ^, H.
* " over abbre-
viations and let-
ters employed as
numerals.
Modern Shape
A
E
B
r
4
E
m 5K
3 3
I
K
A
M
H
n
p
c
T
y
X
^
in m
* t
y
zh
z
i
k
1
m
n
o
P
r
s
t
u
f
kb(ch)
ts
ch
sh
sht
e
ea
ya
(uijh)
iin
J
9^ and Y are only
used in foreign
words.
Improved Modern Shape
Antiqua ; Current
A
B
B
r
D
E
J
Z
I
K
L
M
N
n
p
s
T
Y
a
6
6
r
d
e
a-
z
i
k
A
m
n
o
n
p
s ,
t
Y
$ $
X X
A a
E 6
B 6
r r
D d
E
f
Z
I
K
L
M m
N n
n n
P r
S s
T t
Y r
«f ^
X X
H.U ^ H
H H V H
lUui
mm
T. T,\
Z -6
i i\
/ i
y v:
V V
a
b
V
g
d
ye e
j (Fr.)
Z
i
k
1
m
n
o
P
r
s
t
u
f
kb(ch)
ts
ch
sh
e
(iin)
j
APOSTROPHISED LETTERS.
AaEeltirOSY
6 A a o ii a
lanir™t?Hi°^fBttBi.8'hav„\ll'''^'* 'y.^'Yei^":! ™a, ancient works. With the improved cultivation of the
nS has been tXnTrpnft?^"'''^""'^''' =™P"fi»/. ^« " 'hown in the two Alphabets at the right. No
notice nas been taken here of the ancient names and the accentuation of the letters.
65
POLISH
a like
a
4^ -
ong
e —
e
^ -
16
5§ -
eng
1 —
1
—
06 -
ou
u —
u
y -
e(u)
b -
b
i -
by'
c —
ts
Of -
tssh
cz —
ch
cl -
d
dz —
dz
dz-
dzy'
dz-
J
f -
f
g -
g
h -
h(ch)
ch-
kh
J —
y
k -
k
1 -
1
Zl -
—
m —
- m
m —
my'
n —
n
ISfii -
ny-
P -
P
P -
P
r —
r
rz —
rsh
s —
s
gS -
■ sy'
sz —
sh
t -
t.
w —
V
w -
vy'
z —
z
2z,-
zy'
22 Zz-
-j(Fr.)
The marginal column shows the pronunciation of Polish lietters
in as far as it approximates the English. The vowels a, e,i, 0,
OU, u, u in the adjoining column are sounded as in German. The
following peculiarities must be noticed.
In addition to the five elementary vowels , common to the Eu-
ropean languages, occurs y, which is deeper than the i and sharper
than the French mute e (in poudre, Polish pudyr). As accessory
vowels of a, e stand the nasals q and g (ong, eng). Before b, p,
they sound oin, but nasally; e, always strongly accented, is an
intermediate of e and i. In ie, ia, io, iu the i merely indicates
the softness of the preceding consonant; in fact tljis i forms part
of such a consonant. 6 is a strongly accented deep o, nearly like
U. Hence the Polish vowels descend in the following gradation:
i, e, (te),e,§,y, a,(i, o,6,u.
These vowels have a clear, and distinct sound, except the *
which obtains the consonintal force of «/, when it is followed by
a vowel and preceded by 6, c, dz, m, n,p, s, w, z. In this case
the i is merely the medium of softening the consonant, Ex : bio'drq
(loin) sounds byodro. Before e it becomes ie.
The consonants b, c, dz, m, n,p, s, iv, z are attended by a
slight and rapid articulation ofy, as if written by, cy, dzy, my,
ny, py, sy, wy, zy. They stand as iinals of words, And also of syl-
lables followed by consonants. Of these letters c takes the inter-
mediate sound of our h and ch. ,
c sounds like tS in wants. '
CS is our ch, and sz our sh.
dz sounds like ds in wcmds,
dz is like J in jar.
h is of rare occurrence, the Slavonic h being represented in
Polish by g. It is as guttural as the German ch. Ex: hultaj
(a Good for nothing).
I the virgulated I is heavier than the common I. The middle
part of the tongue is more raised in the articulation of this letter.
rz is r blended with z. The r is softly rolled, and its z is like
• the French J. 'Etl: przy.
z like J in the French word j'oar.
To avoid the accumulation of softening ioto-marks of the
letters b, m, n, p , i, li), z, the following process is preferred.
Before a vowel an i is inserted (as bia mia etc.) ; before i however
and before consonants the «0<a-sign is dispensed with ; b, p, w, wj,
lose this sign even at the end of a word. Owing to the diminution
of the characteristic signs, the letters w, b,p ,m,n, s, z deviate
from the original rule and may be followed by either i or y.
66
SORBIAN OR WENDISH OF LUSATIA.
TliB vowels are: a, o, u, y, e, i. The union of a .mil o makes 6; O an J u form 6; e and i coalesce
in e. The semi-consonant j is connected with i; h with e; w with a O u.
The consonants are divided 1) into Labials w, f, V, b, p, m. 2) Palatals and Linguals n, 1, r.
3) Dentals d, t, (5. 4) Sibilants z Z, s §, c c. 5) Gutturals h ch (g) k.
With regard to tlieir articulation these consonants are divided into broad and slender sounds, accord-
ing as they are hardened or softened in their utterance.
Broad sounds: w, w, b, b, z, z, d, dz, dz, h, g.
Slender sounds: f, v, p, p, s, s, t, c, (5, c, ds, ts, oh, k.
Between these letters nine intermediates talte their place: m, ii'i, n, n, 1', 1, i, r, r.
The whole Alphabet thus consists of the following 8 vowels and 32 consonants. A (6) o, 6, u, y , e,
e> i; J) w, w (f, v) b, b', p,p, m, iii, n, ii, }, 1, (l'), i , i',z, z,s, s, d, dz, dz, t, c, c*^, o,
ts,h, ch, g, k.
In combining one consonant or several consonants \Yith a \o\vel to for.m a syllable, a distinction is made
between hard soft and neutral consonants.
At the same time the following rule is to be observed. In the grammatical comhination.s of structure,
derivation, declension, comparison and conjugation the vowel y cannot follow a soft consonant, nor can
e and i follow a hard consonant, whilst the neutral consonants may he succeeded by either y or i. In
conformily with this rule are reckoned as
Soft, j vv V b' ji in n 1 r z s c d^ c.
Hard, I r z s d dz t c (h ch g k).
Neutral, w f b p m n ds ts.
The letters qu and x, in words of foreign origin, are spelled kw and ks, as kwadrat, Aleksander,
kwas. Also g occurs only in foreign words. V and f are found in hut few vernacular terms.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS.
The accented characters w b p lit n r differ from the unaccented in softness of sound. Before e
(acute) e and i this accent is unnecessary, because these vowels are sufficient to soften the preceding
consonants. '
I sounds like V. In the north-eastern part of the country it is pror.ounced like a harsh 1, For instance
colo.
dz as in English, but without a break between the two letters. E.xaniple na iidzy.
dz like g in gentle, as dzera, nadzya.
z as in English, f. i. zuby.
z like the s in pleasure, f. i. zolty.
s like sh, f. i. saty, sery.
c like ts, as cybac.
c nearly like ch in churn, f. i. cern.
c the sharpest sibilant like tch in wretch, f. i. corny.
ds, ts like ts, f. i. tsiha6.
ch is frequently pronounced hard, like c before a, O, u, especially at the beginning of words, for
instance chory.
j like y in yes.
s like z.
w like V.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS.
a i u as the vowels in are , here , true.
e is acute . grave , or long. After c z s it is often pronounced like y.
acute grave or lengthened.
6 deep nearly like u.
e like ea in dear.
y deep as ea in dearth.
67
CZECHIAN OR BOHEMIAN.
Boman.
abcdefghchijklmnoprstuvyz — aeioiiy — u
C £ 5 d D' d' Gs H A r- S s tit' Z z
German.
abcbcf9l)^ijflmnoprf§tuoi)j — de'idup — u — e
q and x only ocrur in foreign words, qu is generally replaced by kv as kvitance (rcccipl)- Some
writer^ use w for v and ou for au.
The accenied vowels a e i u y and fi are long ;
witliout accent iheir pronunciation is short.
e i i are termed soft vowels. Tlie others are hard.
h ch k r arc hard consonants.
c c d' j n f s t z are soft , and
bdfglmnp stvzare called inJednite
consonants.
THE FOLLOWING SOUNDS DIFFER FROM
THE ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION.
a sounds like the first a in papa,
a like a in father.
c even before k, sounds like ts, as necky (nets-kii)
Ijie tray.
c like ch in church.
d before i i or when marked with the liquifying sign
(d) is sounded dy. This consonantal y is softly
blended with its d, as div or diw (pronounced
dyiv).
e like e in den.
e like a in late.
S as ye in yet. It can only occur after v, f, b, p,
m, n, d, t with which it coalesces. As vek (vyek)
a century.
cy like a in late followed by y in yet , as woley
(call thou). This final y forms a distinct sound.
g as in garnet. It only occurs in foreign words.
h aspirated at the beginning and in the middle of a
word like h in house. At the end of a syllable it
partakes of the guttural sound of ch and is some-
what softer than ch in the Scotch loch.
ch like ch in the Scotch word loch, as chleb
' (bread).
i as in grin.
i like ee in green.
j like y, as jaro (pr. yaro) springtime,
n before i i,*or when marked ii, sounds like ni in
opinion.
o as in of.
6 as in door.
ou is a diphthong which blends the sound of o (in
pole) with u (in put). These vowels retain their
separate pronunciation in verbs with prefi.ted po,
as poubrati (po-u-bra-ti).
s (in German type ff, and as a final, g) like sh in fish.
t before i i, or when marked t, sounds like a t with
which the semi-vowel y coalesces, as tulipan (pron.
tyoo-le-pan) luhp.
u as in put.
ii and ft long as in blue.
y like u in the French pure.
z as in English but.
7. like s in measure.
ORTHOEPIC RULES.
1) The vowels with the long accent (') should not
be lengthened to e.\cess.
2) The consonants s, s, z, z, become mute before
the affix sky, as vessky.
3) The consonant j , as an initial before another
consonant, is not pronounced, as jscm. When a syl-
lable ending in a vowel precedes, the j becomes
audible.
4) The compounds to ds and ts are pronounced
like c; ds and ts, like c.
5) Prepositions consisting of a simple consonant,
such as k, s, V, z, although standing by themselves,
do not form a syllable, hut are sounded together with
the first syllable of the nctt word, for instance k tobe
B naini. These unconnected propositions cannot he
placed by themselves at Ibe end of a line or a page.
68
6) The auxiliary verb, jsem, jsi, jest-jsme,
jste, jsou, ilic conjuncu'onal particles bych, bys,
by, bychom, byste, by, and ilie reflcciive pronouns
se , si allacJiocl W an aclive |iarticiple, are blended
togeiher in the pronunciaUon and joined by a hyphen.
The same is the case when si, se are postpositions of
nouns or adjectives. E. g. shledam-se, modllci-Se.
7) The soft consonants must bo carefully distin-
g:uished in articulation from the indefinites, and the i
i e must properly coalesce with the latter.
8) The sibilants o s z differ from each other as
well as from c s z.
9) h is never mute. Example hrom (thunder) in
which the h sounds as the h in the Scotch pronun-
ciation of which.
10) The accent always rests on the first syllable,
as be-zim, pri-nesu. The accented syllable may at
the same lime be lengthened, as sna-zim, kra-sa.
DIVISION OF SYLLABLES.
In words which are diflicult to pronounce, owing
to the complication of consonants, it is of importance
to ascertain the component syllables. In this language
most syllables end in vowels, The following circum-
stances must be noticed in applying this rule,
1) A consonant placed between ^wo vowels or be-
tween a vowel and I or r, joins the next syllable.
Example: stra-ka, ba-vl-na.
2) Of several conson.ints, followed by a vowel, only
the last consonant goes to the nq.tt syllable; yet sk,
sk, st, ^t are not separated but join the next, syllable.
In such mstances the preceding syllable is often with-
out a vowef, while 1 or r forms the medial consonant.
Example, hrn-cif.
3) 1, r, f, with a vowel after, are joined by the
preceding consonant in forming ofrc syllable. To this
rule n forms an exception. The consonants sk, sk,
st, st must without separation Ive annexed to the syl-
lable which follows. Example, kno-flik, zei-dlik,
sve-tlo, han-li-vy.
4) Compound words are divided according to their
component parts, as ou-voz, na-dvo-H.
HUNGARIAN.
The Hungarian language comprises 31 sonants which are expressed by the Roman Alpha-
bet. Owing to the combinations of some letters the Alphabet is formed as follows:
abcsczdefggyhijkllymnnyooprssz
t ty u ii V z zs.
The vowels a e i o 6 u ii, are sounded as in German. With the accent at the top the
vowels d e I 6 u it are lengthened.
The combinations es cz gy ly ny sz ty zs represent single articulations and are inseparable
in spelling. *■
cs sounds like ch as kocsi. . , ■
cz » » ts as czukor.
gy » » di in the French word Dieu, as gydr. . : ■■ i i
ly a » il in the French word email, as homdly. " " i
ny » » ni in opinion, as any a.
: sz 1) » s as szag.
ty II )i ti in the French metier as tyuk.
zs 1) » j in the French word jour as zsdk. '
With regard to the consonants is to be noticed that,
j is pronounced like y in yes, and
s like the English sh, as sas.
The letters c ch q w x are only found In foreign words, for instance Cato, Achilles. '
y does not represent an independent sound, but simply helps to soften the antecedent
letter. Nevertheless in Old-Hungari^n words y and ch are employed as independent letters.
The former then sounds lijfe i in it, and ch as in church. For example Pdlffy, Forga^h.,
The compounds cs and cz are often denoted by tS and tz. Modern Orthography rejects
this spelling except in words where the t is radical, as bardtsdg (not baracsag).
69
LETTISH.
The Lets have adopted the following 22 letters of the German Alphabet,
abcbegnj.JIiinoprfStuwj.
The c and b are only used in combination with f to express the sounds of (c^ and fc^).
The \) moreover serves to lengthen the vowels. The German consonants ^ (?) f b never
occur in Lettish. Nor are o and ii in use. The q y ^ are represented by flu, U, i.
By means of the 22 characters the following 34 simple sounds of the I^ettish language
are formed.
obbibegs@ji!l^ttgmmiu»3?op^3JrrSi
♦ f bf fc^ bf(^ f ® (s) fdj t tfc^ u ft) iDJ i.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS.
e i u are short. When lengthened they are marked thus,
A A A A
a e t u
The is always long, nevertheless it receives the lengthening mark to distinguish the
accented o(; and 6 from the lighter o.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
There are six diphthongs in this language, oi au ct oi Ut ee. The first five are pro-
nounced as in German. Although at and et are naturally long they occur with the circumflex
ai ci. The diphthong oi only appears in the word IBOi. When au and ui are to become
separate syllables the it and i are marked with the diaeresis , aii, uV. Peculiar is the sound of
ee; jt passes from the articulation of ce (such as is heard iu the German word @ee or in the
English word say) to an intermediate sound, such as is heard in the second a of advantage.
CONSONANTS.
The following letters have the English sound, bblmnlJrt. The j is a consonant like our
y; W sounds as U, and j like t6. The labials 6 m ^ lU may be followed by the modifying j,
which like the Russian x, helps to soften the consonant and causes a slight i- to ring
after it. It cannot be separated from the consonant nor uttered as an indepeudeut letter.
tnx are virgulated as t « i=, instead of being followed by j. Besides theseletters the follow-
ing four are virgulated.
g like the German { before e and t; g is like t before a U.
i hard like k iri Jcing, f as c in come, cut.
f , sharp like our s. S is the final of this sharp f.
f is soft like our j.
bf form an inseparable sound like the soft Italian z.
fd^ sharp like the Russian in and the English sh. The virgnla of f and fd; does not
indicate the sound of an inherent j. It only helps to distingjiish the sharply pro-
nounced consonant from the soft f and \i), the latter is pronounced like the Russian
at or the French^ in jour.
tfd^ is like the English ch and bfd^ like g in gentle.
PRONUNCIATION. OF SUCCESSIVE CONSONANTS.
Two or more Consonants, joined together in one syllable or in two syllables, must be
so articulated that each should retain its original and independent sound. The n is some-
what ti\pdified by the g and t. It being assimilated with these letters , its sound is like
that in the English words sing, sink (not as in tingle, tinkle). When g and { are marked
with the cross -stroke the It is likewise virgulated,' and is then pronounced in accordance
with the foregoing rules. •
70
GERMAN
%
b
S^ 'J
6 c
® b
e e
3 t
S j
3K tn
k
1
m
^
^
J-
31 ci
t ii
(3^
■ff
ff
p
fi
fl
fl
rt
si
ff
ss
u
ch
ck
St
sz
tz
The vowels are: n a c i o 5 ii li. The diphthongs
or compound vowels are: ni ci ail au cu; all oilier
letters are consonants.
Simple vowels. »
Every vowel, followed By two consonants, is short, if
foUowedby cCnly, one consonant it is long.
a is pronounced like a in the English word /bf/ier.
81 ii is pronounced like a in the ICnglish word lale.
ffi e is pronounced like e in the English word lei.
a i is pronounced like e in the English word me.
g) is pronounced like o in the English word tope.
S ii is pronouncedl like cm in the Krcnch-word seui.
ViVL is pronounced like oo in the English jwordroo/.
it it is pronounced like the French «, There is no
Corresponding sound in the English language.'
^ 4 has the sound of the German i, bv which
it IS generally replaced.
Double vowels.
The double vowels na, oc, op, are.jio diphthongs,
because onlv one letter, is, sounded, and tuesecond
serves to indjcale'that the svllable i.s long.
ic is pronounced like eo in" the English word meal.
Diphthongs.
In the German diphthongs, (he two vowels must be
sounded one after the otlior, but so quicklv as to
lorm only one syllable.
ai and 'ci are pronounced almost alike, and have
,liie sound of the English i in the word /ire.
' . m is pronounced lilig on in the English w&rd /iOM.5e.
(iu and cu sound almost like oij in the word joy.
Consonants.
The pronunciation of the consonants dilfers hut
little in the two languages; the learner should no-
tice the following peculiarities.
K C before a c and i is pronounced like h.
Before n i) ii, before a consonant, and at the end
of a syllable it is pronounced like ft, bv which in
most oases it may be replaced.
6(1 at the beginning of a word is prononnced
like k, except in words< derived from the French,
in which it retains the French pronunciation.
In the middle or at the end of a word di has a
pronunciation quite fieculiarto the German language,
and more or less guttural, but for which nocoire-
sponding Sound csaj be found in English ; it is like
the Scotch^ in (fte word loch after ii o u mi, but
softer after d e i 3 ii Su en. and after a consonant.
ili or i^f is pronounced likes; when these conso-
nants belong to the root or radical svllhble.
But the d) preserves its guttural pronunciation,
when it stands 'before the « or f bv conlraction or
in a compound word.
@ g at the beginning of a svllable is pronounced
like the Ei^lish j in Ilia worrf qooii; but between
two vowels , in the middle of a word and at the end of
a syllable it has a sound like the rfi, only much softened.
After 11 at the ^nd of a word it' is pronounced
like a very soft k.
$^ is always^spiraled at the beginningof a syllable.
The'aspiration becomes however almost "imper-
ceptible before a flnalW.
Aller. a vowel or a t, the Ii is not pronounced,
but, only indicates that the syllable is long.
H \ only ^tftnds at the beginning of a svllable
and is pronounced like the English v in the word i/ei. ,,
i replaces the double t, and is pronounced fhorl.
Du qil has the sound of *o in English. .**,
8 f d at the beginning of a syllable is pronounced
like the English i, at the end of a svllable however
like the English s. t ■*, '
The long lis placedatthobeginningand in the middle.
S Only at the end of syllables. If in an uninflected word
there are two f'olie after another, Ihey are written ji.
S is only placed at the end or in the middle of
syllables, has the sound of the English s«.
Sif fi( is pronounced like the English s/i.
, fl and fp are pronounced like &l and s^ in Eng-
lish; but in some parts of Germany thov pronounce
flat the beginning ofa word like s/ii", and fplikes/ip.
IB V has the sound of f.
!!S tD is pronounced like the English v.
3 3 "is spunded like (s.
9 replaces the double % and i< pronounced very hard.
71
DANISH
1 a
3la aa #
§8 b
6 c
® b
@ e
g f
© g
,■& f) (haa)
3 t
3 i (Jodi
^ f (kaa)
"S I
3Jl m
31 n
D
1 ^ V
[ ^ q
9t r
! © M
; ^ t
! u u
as to (we)
i X ?
1 9) 9
3 8
-ma (a)
© /5 (6)
The Danish language forms part of the great Gothic family and derives
its origin from the ancient Norse which once extended over the whole of
Scandinavia. Hence it is closely connected with modern Icelandic and
Swedish, more distantly with the German, Dutch and English languages.
In its further development it has embodied a variety of terms from the
French, Latin and Greek.
The Alphabet consists of the adjoining 28 charactei-s.
VqWELS AND DIPHTHONGS.
The simple vowels are '
aaaetou»OE0
They are long as in ®tat (the a as in starf'Hiaab, SBeeti, blib, or short
as in ©tab, Slonb, »eb, S3ib. The vowels e i U ^ have an open sound as
in ^tet, Sigt, gobt,*or a close sound as in ftrefc, firib, gob. e i u, as long
middle vowels, are doubled unless the word ends in 6 b g tt, as ©teen, 93een,
2)Juu8. At the end only the e is doubled, as tec, fee. The other vowels at
the end of a syllable are always long, as 3:oa , @tt , Sto , and often add a
mute e , as ftoae. In inflections the reduplication of the vowel ceases , as
§UU8, §ufe. The vowels OE e cannot be spelled at oe. ? is pronounced like
the French u , not like the English y. Ex : 9)ube. aa mostly sounds like a
in warm. In modern times S has been adopted for oa, and 'i for the open e.
For the deep pronunciation of this vowel, the mark has been retained.
As diphthongs are reckoned oi eijoi 01 0J OU eu OU Ut. Some grammarians
only admit ^he following six, oi au ei eu ou 0i. The pronunciation of these
vowels consists in a rapid blending of their respective sounds.
CONSONANTS.
The consonants are , ^
6cbfgnfl»nn^)qt8ft»fs. .
According to the organs of speech they are divisible into: 1) Linguals
b 1 1 n r. 2) Labials 6 ^ f m. 3) PaWtals g f q j. 4) Sibilants f 3. 5) Aspi-
rate ^. In the dialect of the Juts the | is aspirated before j and i>. b b g
and to are softgned to ^uch a degree as to become frequently inaudible.
After a vowel or when placed between two vowels b is pronounced b^ (like
the.Anglo-Saxon d" or the English th in smooth). Double b has a similar pronunciation. lb
and nb sound like II and nn. In rb the b has a very sdft sound. Also before 8 the b loses
part of its force , and it becomes inaudible before t. j^ounds like j/ in j/es. to sounds like
the English v. .,
The following letters are peculiar to forei|m Words. 1) c before a It or a consonant,
is pronounced as in English; before e t ^ CE 0, it is like s. e^ is like h. 2) q, followed by to,
sounds like kv. 3) J is like dz or tz, and sometimes like the English a. 4) y in the middle
and at the end of a word is like gs or ks. As an initial it is almost as soft as «.
Combinations of letters, ff fi fl tt ff fj jl ft.
!■
72
SWEDISH.
The Alphabet consists of the following 28 letters,
Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hli li Jj Kk LI Mm Nn Oo
Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Xx Yy Zz Aa Aa 6.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS.
The vowels a o u d are hard , and e i y & 6 are soft. The vowels a i u sound as in
German or Italian, a is like a in bare, a like o in tone. The e sounds as a in ale. 1) when
forming an independent syllable, Ex: e-vig (eternal). 2) at the end of a syllable, Ex: ande
(spirit). 3) In many monosyllabic words, inflections, derivations and compounds, e sounds
like ai in air. 1) before/ </ Imnr, when the next syllable of the same word is a consonant,
as efter (after). 2) before^' as nej (no). 3) in many monosyllables, as elg (elk). These rules
have many exceptions, o has two sounds, 1) nearly as in move, when it constitutes a syllable
by itself, or at the end of a word ; also before the radical m, in nouns and adjectives; in
all derivatives of words ending in o; before x and in various other forms of words. 2) o Ijas
a lengthened sound before a final /, and a sharp sound (as in not) before m np r t. — 6 is
mostly lengthened (nearly like the French eu in lewr) as do (to die), or the sound is sharper
and quicker, as for (for).
There are no diphthongs in this language.
CONSONANTS. '
b retains its ordinary sound.
C before k stands for Jck. Before h it ojlly
occurs in the Swedish word Och (pro-
nounced ock). Before the soft vowels it
sounds likes, before the hard vowels like S.
d sounds like our d. Before t like f. As a
final after n almost like n. Before J it is
silent.
/ as in Englifib. -At-the end of a word like v.
In the middle of a word before v of the
same syllable, also after I and r, it is mute '
Ex: kalfven (pron. kalven). f and v of
separate syllables retain their original
sounds. Ex: drifved (= driv-ved).
g 1) as in good before a hard vowel, before
i and e in a sharp unaccented syllable , sir
the end, and before a consonant of the
same syllable. 2) like y in yes, before the
soft vowels , and after I and r. Ex : ge (like
ya). Of this rule there are some excep-
tions. 3) like ck wheh a t follows. Ex:
sagt (=sackt). 4) like ng when a syllable
ends m gn , as vagn (pronounced vangn).
5) before J it is mute. Ex: gjort {■pr.jort).
h is aspirated, before j and v it is mute.
j like 2/ in yes. Aiter fmnp the j is elea,Tly
articulated and the preceding consonant
has a very slight pronunciation. As a final
letter it is somewhat like the German eh.
k 1) as in English. It is subject to the same
rules as g. 2) before the soft vowels it
is like our ch. In kjortel the k sounds
like t.
I before j is mute.
m as in English. The final m sounds like
two m in those radical worHs which, on
being inflected, are spelled with double m.
Ex: lam (pron. lamtm).
■g with V after, sounds like kv.
r and s as inlBnglish. stj, sj, skj like sh.
sk before soft vowels is likewise pro-
nounced as sh.
t as in English, tj like ch in church. Hon,
with a hard vowel before it, like schone,
and after a consonant like shone.
V as in English. The word vonis pronounced
fon as in German from which language it
is borrowed.
X is like ks. *
Z is pronounced like s.
73
ANGLO-SAXON.
The Anglo-Saxon language developed itself from
the Low-German (Old-Saxon) idiom, which was in-
troduced in England hy the Saxons in or hefore the fifih
century. In the ninth century this language was cul-
tivated in writing, and obtained currency through
the agency of laws and translations. In the eleventh
century, with the overthrow of the Saxon dynasty
and the commencement of the Norman rule , French
became the language of the court and of judicial pro-
ceedings. The knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language
was confined to the dependent classes and to the re-
sidents of convents. In the thirteenth century, when
this idiom once more became popular, it had received
such an amount of foreign elements, and had lost so
many native characteristics, that it could only he con-
sidered as a mixed dialect, out of which the modern
English language was gradually formed.
PRONUNCIATION.
a e i o u have the same sound as
in German or Italian.
y has the same force as in Eng-
lish.
SB sounds as a in that.
The Consonants have the following
peculiarities of pronunciation,
c is in all instances hard like k. cw
stands for kw.
f between two vowels or as a final
letter is pronounced like v.
g is always like- the modern g in
go. Qccasionally 5 occurs instead
of g. This letter takes the sound
of y in yes.
eg is used instead of gg.
Ij, is a strong aspirate. As a final
of a syllable and before a con-
sonant it resembles the German
ch.
hw answers to the English wh. h
is also found before the liquids
1, n, I.
w sometimes precedes r and 1.
J> (tha) hard, like th in thick.
<!r (eth) soft, like th in this. Usually
|) is the initial and <!r the tiual of
a syllable.
^ and J slands for and.
-j5 stands for pset.
i stands for oMe.
The accent {') over a vowel denples its length. In
words of equal spelling this accent points out the
difference of sound and meaning. For instance ac
(but, eke) ac (ooli). The elision of m and n is indi-
cated by a short line (-) over the antecedent letter.
A a
a
Bl)
b
Cc-
c
Db
d
ee
e
Fp
f
Qs
g
fal
h
I 1
i
kk
k
Ll
1
QDm
m
JYn
n
Oo
Pp
P
RH
r
Sr
s
Tc
t
CIu
u
V?
V
Xoc
X
Yf
y
Zz
z
£)&
dh
bl*
th
IRISH.
It has been a subject of learned discussions whe-
ther the Irish in the I'agan period made use of the
ancient alphabets, which are known by the name of
Ogham, and are preserved in some sculptured mo-
numents and in various MSS. With the introd||^lion
of Christianity and the spreading of conventual edu-
cation the subjoined Alphabet was formed, which is
still employ.£d in anliquarii||p publications and in some
works intended for the Irish people. At the present
lime the Irish language is frequently written and
printed in Roman (English) characters.
91 4, a
21)11) m
Bl) b
N 1) n
C C c k
Oo
t)T= d
P13 p
e ft e
Ht^ 1
Tr f
S X ^
5 5 8
re t
1 J i
Uk u
I I 1
1)1) h
LIGATURES.
Irish MSS. contain contractions of which the following
are the most usual.
3 gk
ti) 11
lf)b
ii)
1)T5
1?
tn-
t
f
did
4«
adh
<l^
e
4
air
3,
an
^
am
7
agur
4
ar
1)
V w
bl*
V w
1,p,
b
cc
g
c
ch
^.
d
CT
d
<i
ea
Q:XZ.
ea
f
h
3C
g
m
ni
w
11
nn
f
b
rv
h
si
h
t
d
10
74
GOTHIC
Form
Value
Num:
powei
Ligatures and
marks
»i
a
1
ILIGATUEES
B
r
b
g
2
3
of frequent oc-
currence in the
Skeireins.
&
d
1
Tf for hT
e
u
e
q
5
6
hjs. — Nj\
Nl — Hn
z
z
h
7
8
rji - n)i
-1^
dhdO
9
IsV — UiV
I'i
1
10
bS — NS
R
A
H
k
1
ra
20
30
40
1^ - Ji'l^
N
n
50
q
J
60
MONOGRAMS.
n
n
u
P
r
70
80
100
for mat|)aius
s
T
s
t
200
300
for markus.
ll
V
f
X
400 ,
500
600
X
irUMEEICAL
FipUBES.
w
700
L| = 90
Q
800
4v = 900
Observations
The Gothic language was in ancient times
spoken by the eastern Germans who were de-
signated by the collective name of Goths. It be-
longs to the Indo-Germanic family, and as a dead
language, it has been remarkably preserved in
the most ancient relic of Germanic literature. It
is the first of the sister- languages that was com-
mitted to writing, and has thus reached us in its
original pu'rity. Although the relics of Gothic
literature are very scanty, for beyond the frag-
■meutary version of the Bible and the so called
Skeireins, we possess but insignificant remains,
there is enough matter extant to aii'ord'a perfect
insight into the grammatical structure of the
language.
The Gothic Alphabet has the adjoining 25 let-
ters. Their names are not known, as the lan-
guage was not cultivated by native grammarians.
The invention of the Gothic characters is attri-
buted to Ulphilas.
To distinguish the numerical letters from the
other characters , the sign or ■ — ' is placed
above or below the number. In these cases the
diaeresis over the 1' is omitted. Such letters receive
a characteristic dot on the right and left. In the
Neapolitincopy two dots, in the shape af a colon,
are placed on both sides of the letter. Instead
of dots the upright circumflex is I sometimes to
be found,
'*(2), ^(40), sQ^ceo).
The " catchword" is likewise enclosed be-
tween upright oircumflexe J, as <,es.
ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS.
1. Diacritical signs only occur in the
diceresis over the initial I.
2. Punctuation. As a general rule the single stop represents the brief pause, and the
double stop a longer pause. Yet this punctuation is not consistently carried out, such signs
being often introduced .without purpose, and contrary to the sense. After a long pause a
bianc space is left. In the other parts of the text the words are all strung together without
division, and sometimes the new sentence is placed in an other line, in which case the
initial letters are preceded by the sign ' ■ ' or ' ■ •
3. The division of a word, written in two lines, is often made without any rule, and
merely to fill the vacant space. The separation is in rare instances-indicated by a hyphen,
which then is marked at the beginning of the new line, and not at the end of the preced-
ing one.
4. Quo tart on s are distinguished from the text by the single upright marks or the double
Sf,. This mark is continued in the margin before all the lines which contain the quotation.
In the Skeireins , which has single marks of quotation, the sign '~'~' is superadded
in the first line, and the sign ■ . in the last.
5. Abbreviations. The elision of n is marked by ' — ' or " ', and m by ' ■ ' or
" ~ '• .These signs are generally used at the end of a line, when there is not enough space
for the letters, but sometimes they also occur in the middle of a line. Real abbreviations
are in some instances indicated by the sign >, before and after the word , but generally the
signs ' ', ' " or ' ' are employed.
75
RUNES
Form
Name
Value
Num:
power
f
1
U
2
th
3
4
r
5
k
6
h,
7
n
8
i
9
a
10
s
11
t
12
b
13
1
14
m
15
y ■
16
Obserraiions
I
F6
Ur
Thurs
Os
Reid
Kaun
Hagl
Naud
Is
Ar
Sol
Tyr
Biork
Laugr
Madr
Yr
r F6 f 1 The adoption of the Norse Runes takes its
K,^ origin in remote antiquity, and probably belongs
I I Ur U 2 to a pre- christian period, as is suggested by a
variety of coincidences , although hitherto no
positive proofs have been discovered in the
Bunic stones, by which those monuments might
be connected with the prevalence of paganism.
As is the case in the Grreek, Gothic and other
alphabets, the Runic signs represent both
letters and numerals. These characters, 16 in
number, bear peculiar names, and appear to
have been arranged in an arbitrary manner, no
attention having been paid to the mutual rela-
tion and tvansition of the several letters.
The Runic characters were divided into
three classes, in which the letter w headed the
first series, )k and'T' each of the other two
series. These three divisions were therefore
U Sol S 11 respectively named jfrej/s-aeti (Frey's family),
Hagls - aett and Tyrs-aett. It is obvious that
these letters could but imperfectly express the
variety of sounds. There was only one sign
for g and k, d and t, h and p, u v and y. It
is most curious that the connective e and 6 are
omitted in this systeiq. The latter vowel is
^1^ IK. I replaoed. by OMj and the former by i, o, '*fl! and
J Madr m 15 (,i_ instead of g and gh the h is 'ocoa/sionally
employed, while u might serve as the substitute
ofOjOfthe vowel 2/, of (jbe diphthongs ae, aMjmd
^___ ey, and even of the consonants v and/. TjJ«^
equivalent to ijnal r (of the same value astBr
and ur), and as such it was called aw. When the insuf^iehcy of the Runic alphabet
was more sensibly felt, four additional letters were adopted, namely e, g,p and v. Their
names were no longer in conformity with the 16 archaic characters. Nor were new shipes
given to these Runes. The simple expedient of adding one dot or two to the kindred letter
was considered sufficient; therefore these sign bear the name oi stungnar runir l^ioltei
runes). The old letters adapted to this purpose are i, k, h and /. When the Roman cha-
racters, along with the use of paper and parchment were adopted in the North, the Runes were
increased by the addition of dh, d, ae, oe, we, and subsequently by the superfluous letters
c, q, X and 0. The latter signs may be regarded as spurious augmentations of the Runes.
The same criticism seems to hold good in reference to the three double runes, by wMch
the numerals were increased to ninteen, and beyond which the numeral system of the Runes
does not extend.
The 3 double -runes are,
/f^ al, Arlaugr. 17.
>j< mm, Tvimadr. 18.
(p tt, Belgthor. 19.
To express the subsequent numbers, several Runes were combined.
J J (= twice ten) denoted 20,^^|^ = 21. yj^|^ = SSandsoon.
76
*
RUNES "
1
-
compared with the Gothic Alphabet of Ulfllas. •
1
i
Northern
Rufies
Golden
Horn
* *
^ Anglo-Saxon
!
Alp]iabet of Ulfilas "
«' 1
Y
tt
f
Y
p
feoh
f
)=
faihu
?
n
lir
U V
n
HA
ur
u
n
urus '■
OU
\
{•urs Porn
f#
!>
1^
Porn
P
^
Paiirnus
^
Ak
6s
f!
1*
a
^
OS
fV
ans
a
R
rei*
r
R
R
r
R
rad
r
)^
rai*a
P
Y
kaun
kg
<
<
c(k)
khh
cen
c (k)
R
kaunzama
k (y x)
X
X
g
X
gyfu '
S
r
giba
Y
p
p
V
1
wen
w
Y?
vinja
V u
>I<HH
hagal
h
H
HH
h
HNt
haegl
h
h
hagls
h
+ h
nauA"
n
+
+
n
\'
nyd
n
H
nau|)S
V
1
is
i
1
1
i
1
is
i
1
eis
I (ifj U S St)
H
ar
a
q
<J> ♦,
ger
ge (-y)
q
\hv
t
(A)
(yr)
1.
%oh
60 ■
z z
iuja
?(5)
If
H^
poor*
P' .
n
pair|)r
■K.
H
s61
s
SI'
5
^
s
eolhx
sigel
s
sen:
s6jil
S [%)
T1.
tyr .
t d
t
T
t
T
tir
t
T -
-tins
X 1
^"
biarkan
bp
^
^
beorc
b
B B
bairika
P (V)
M
M
e
M
eh
e
B(~)
aihvus
•»)(isaias)
YCp
ma*r
m
M
Y
m^
MM
man
m
H
manna
[^
r
iegr
r
r
r
i
r
lagu ^
1
A
lagus
X
o
♦
g&(nS)
$
ing
ng
x +
iggvs
X (k)
k
M
d
H
daeg
d
A
dags
8 (^)
■
(M)
$i
-
|5
e*el
ae
aesc
yr
ear
ior
calc
6 Be
a
ae
y
ea
io
Q
6|)al
M (O Ou)
M^
Stan
st
i
1
■'-
^I
gar
g
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